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I LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. S 



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POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 



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STRUCTURES, FUNCTIONS, AND RELATIONS OF 
THE HUMAN SYSTEM. 



AXD THEIR 



APPLICATION TO THE PRESERVATION OF HEALTH. 



By E. T. TRALL, M.D., 



AUTHOR 07 *' HYDROPATHIC ENCYCLOPEDIA, ' " HYGIENIC HAND-BOOK," ''DIGESTION 

AND DYSPEPSIA, 1 ' "MOTHER'S HYGIENIC HAND-BOOK," AND NUMEROUS 

OTHER WORKS. 







NEW YORK: 
S. R. WELLS & CO., 737 BROADWAY. 

75. 









^ 



Copyright, 1875, by S. R. Wells & Co. 



PEEFACE. 



The object of this volume, which is partly a compilation 
from the author's larger works, is to present, with the usual 
Anatomical descriptions and illustrations, a more complete 
explanation and application of Physiology and Hygiene to the 
purposes of practical life, than is found in the numerous 
Physiologies for schools in the market. It is, therefore, intend- 
ed to be specially adapted to the wants of families and schools. 

Florence Hights, N. J. R T. T. 

November 1, 1875. 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 
PREFACE 



CHAPTER I. 

MANS PLACE IN NATURE 

CHAPTER II. 

RACES OF MEN 

CHAPTER III. 

TEMPERAMENTS 

CHAPTER IV. 

BODILY POSITIONS 29 

CHAPTER V. 

THE BODILY FRAMEWORK - -40 

CHAPTER VI. 

THE LIGAMENTS— SYNDESMOLOGY 65 

APTER VII. 
THE Mi - HYOLOG1 82 



CHAPTER VIII. 

DIGESTION 114 

CHAPTER IX. 

ABSORPTION 139 

CHAPTER X. 

RESPIRATION 146 

CHAPTER XI. 

CIRCULATION, 152 

CHAPTER XII. 

SECRETION AND EXCRETION 158 

CHAPTER XIII. 

THE SPECIAL SENSES 164 

CHAPTER XIV. 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 178 

CHAPTER XV. 

MICROSCOPICAL ANATOMY 194 

CHAPTER XVI. 

HYGIENE 204 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



CHAPTER I. 



MAN'S PLACE IN NATURE. 



Geology and Genesis agree that the human being is tho 
crowning work of the Almighty Architect; the Bible and 
science harmonize in placing man at the head of creation, as 
the production of Infinite Wisdom. Myriads of living organ- 
isms preceded him in the order of existence, and uncertain ages 
elapsed while the earth was being prepared for his habitation. 
Yet how transient his sojourn! 
Like a drop of water to the vast 
ocean is the duration of his exist- 
ence here, compared with the long 
cycles of ages required to form the 
solid ground from the incandes- 
cent ether. Surely, this life can- 
not be all there is of beings so en- 
dowed with ever-unfolding facul- 
ties, so constituted with endless 

hopes, and so blessed with inimor- ' r^7^7^i^[f^^^^ v N 
t il aspirations. pf if^F(W$$ \V 

In the order of nature the greater 
always Includes the less. Man em- 
bodies in his organization all the elements of all living things, 

What is said of man's place in nature? What does man's organltttioi 
embody } 




10 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

and every power of every mind that has preceded him in the 
scale of being. He has all the vital properties of the plant, all 
the instincts of both plant and animal ; and, in addition thereto, 
moral and intellectual powers peculiar to himself. He is not, 
therefore, a u higher animal." He is not an animal at all, but 
a human being. And when we analyze his mental endow- 
ments, and compare and contrast them with the highest ani- 
mals, we shall see in what his humanity consists. 

Whether the human family has proceeded from a single pair ; 
whether there have been distinct creations for the different 
races; whether there has been a pre-Adamite man; whether 
man has developed according to a universal type ; whether he 
originated in a special act of creative energy — these are prob- 
lems we must yet leave with the scientists and theologians. 
Possibly we may eventually arrive at the demonstrated truth 
of some or all of these interesting questions. Meanwhile, our 
interest and our duty are plain enough. Whatever the truth 
may be it is best for us to understand it whenever* we can. Let 
us, therefore, seek truth, honestly and sincerely, on these and 
on all other subjects. Let us make the best possible use of 
what we do know. Let us be charitable to others concerning 
all matters of opinion, and concede to them the same freedom 
of conscience and independence of judgment that we claim for 
ourselves. ' ' Do unto others as you would have others do unto 
you," is a precept which, if universally recognized in practice, 
would change scientific controversies into earnest investiga- 
tions, and substitute emulation in well-doing for religious dis- 
putations. 

The doctrine of the " descent of man," which is just now the 
most prominent of the many debatable questions among the 
learned, would be divested of all its odium if Darwin and his 
disciples would change the phrase to " ascent of man." This is 
what they really mean. And this is the philosophical truth. 
But in employing a misnomer, Darwinism has arrayed against 
the theory it has advanced an immense amount of honest pre- 
judice and justifiable self-esteem. It is sufficiently humiliating 
to our reasonable pride to have descended from anything. It is 
quite bad enough to have degenerated from a higher human 

What are the unsolved problems respecting the human race ? What is oar 
duty concerning those problems ? What is the golden rule of action ? 



HAN'S PLACE IN NATURE. H 

being; but to ask us to admit that we have descended from the 
lower animals, is requiring too much of our poor, yet proud 
human nature. 

But Darwinism, rightly explained, has nothing degrading nor 
disagreeable: nor is it at variance with the theory that human 
beings, in different parts of the world, have grown better or 
worse in different periods of history. Yet, as there are a hun- 
dred quarrels about words to one dispute about ideas, those 
who present new doctrines, or assume to be teachers, cannot be 
too explicit and unambiguous in technical terms. 

Nothing can descend from anything lower than itself. It may 
descend towards it. But if the direction be from it. the move- 
ment must of necessity be upward. Whatever our origin may 
prove to be, our consolation and hope may be found in the fact 
that we are higher than the animals, though not higher animals; 
and as there is nothing in the visible creation higher than our- 
selves, our position ought to be satisfactory. 

In realizing the grand truth that man has ascended from the 
animal kingdom, no matter how, to a higher plane of existence, 
and with peculiar endowments and attributes, as the animal 
ascended from the preceding vegetal kingdom, we recognize the 
law of progress. And we get rid of the debasing idea that we 
are the offspring of the gorilla or the monkey, and that the 
quadruped or the reptile are our progenitors. The animals be- 
low us have nothing to do with our parentage, because they 
have preceded us. We might as well call the plants the pa- 
rents of the animals because they were first in the order of 
existence. It is development, not parentage, that we are to 
understand. It is ascent and not descent, that applies to hu- 
manity in its relation to the animal kingdom. 

Every living organism, plant, animal, or man, is, in its pro- 
i development and growth, but the unfolding of a pri- 
mordial germ — a seed, or an egg. This fact presupposes a 
parental source, for " spontaneous generation " has not yet been 
proved. The seed, or egg, develops and grows according to fixed 
and invariable laws, requiring certain conditions of air, tem- 
perature and moisture, with certain elements whieli serve the 
purposes of food. 11* these conditions are imperfect, the devel- 

What i- Darwlnlanlani ? Why htm not man descended from the animals? 
How is man higher than the animals ? 



12 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

opment and growth will be abnormal. Excess or deficiency in 
any normal agency, or the introduction of non-usable or poison- 
ous materials, disturb the " normal play of the functions;" and 
herein is the origin of disease. Vegetables feed on inorganic 
elements and atmospheric gases, which are deleterious to ani- 
mals and man. Man and animals can only feed on organic mat- 
ter, and require pure air and water, and food which contains no 
inorganic or chemical elements. If man breathes an impure 
atmosphere, drinks hard or stagnant water, and eats food min- 
gled with impurities or inorganic elements of any kind, his 
health suffers accordingly, and his period of life is correspond- 
ingly abridged. 

These considerations establish the principle that a life, to be 
healthy and enduring, must be in accordance with the laws of 
life. As our relations to all else in the universe are determinate 
and unalterable, these relations constituting the laws of our 
being, it follows that our best good, our greatest interest, and 
our highest happiness can only be found in harmony with, or 
obedience to, those laws. Every act in disobedience to organic 
law is a cause of suffering ; it occasions disease and tends to 
premature death. Vitality can be expended, but it cannot be 
regained. How important, therefore, if we would live long in 
the land, or be useful and happy while we do live, that we un- 
derstand the laws of the ' ' fearfully and wonderfully made " 
machinery of life. The maxim that, ' ' intensive life cannot be 
extensive," should be taught to every child in the primary 
school ; nor can the child too soon learn the important lesson 
that all stimulation, whether in the shape of food, drink, or 
medicine, is abnormal, disease-producing, and wasteful of the 
unreplenishable fund of life. To nourish the body without 
stimulating it, is the essential problem that physiologists and 
medical teachers have generally misunderstood or disregarded. 
Indeed many of them teach the very opposite — that stimula- 
tion is invigorating and necessary. 

What is understood by development? State some of the conditions of 
growth. Wherein is the origin of disease? On what do vegetables feed? 
What food do man and animals require ? State some things injurious to health. 
In what consists our highest happiness ? State an important maxim of life. 
What is the effect of stimulation ? 



CHAPTER II. 

RACES OF MEN.* 

The division of the human family into race^ or classes, each 
distinguished by certain striking pecnliarities in the shape of 
the head, and in the structure, color, and arrangement of the 
skin, hair, and eyes, though strictly belonging to the science 
of ethnology, is a subject constantly becoming more interesting 
to the physiologist, from its intimate connection with the devel- 
opment of men, and the improvement and advancement of hu- 
manity. 

A classification of mankind into leading classes must, of 
course, involve distinctions purely arbitrary; for the races may 
be distinguished into two or twenty, or any number between, 
as the marks of difference are more or less prominent. 

The division of Blumenbach, 
who makes five principal races, 
s useful and satisfactory as 
any other can be. These are 
named the Caucasian, Mongo- 
lian. Ethiopic, American, and 
Malay. 

The Caucasian Race.— The 
Caucasian race is remarkable for 
the highest physiological devel- 
opment, personal symmetry and 
beauty, and intellectual attain- 
ments. The chief families of this 
race are the Caucasians proper, 

and the Germanic, Celtic, Arabian, Libyan, Nilotic, and Hindos- 

■ 




■£k 



■Caucasian Raoe. 



* Th<- irtfc ices, Population, and Temperament," are copied substantially 

from '• The Hydropathic Encyclopedia," a work recommended to all who desire to be 
wefl4nlbrmed in relation to the condition- of health, and the most I methods 

of tie -eg. 



What races of men are there? F<»r what [a the Caucasian remarkable? 
lief (amilie 

2 



14 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



In this race the skin is generally fair, the hair fine and long, 
and of various colors, the skull large, rounded, and oval, and the 
forehead broad or prominent, large and elevated. The face is 
relatively small and well-proportioned, the nose arched, the chin 
full, and the teeth vertical. 

In this variety or race of men we find the farthest remove 
from the animaMn brain, features and hair, with a superiority 
of intellectual and moral power, love of the arts, science and 
poetry. The progress of the human family seems to be made 
wholly through this race. 

The Mongolian Kace. — The Mongolian variety includes the 
Mongol Tartars, Turks, and the Chinese and Polar tribes, which 
inhabit a vast extent of the earth's surface, and constitute about 
half of the population of the globe. In physiological character- 
istics the Mongolians manifest considerable variety. The hair 
is black, long, and straight, the beard scanty, the skin com- 
monly of an olive tint, the eyes black, the nose broad and short, 
the cheek-bones broad and flat, the skull oblong, but flattened, 
so as to give it a square appearance, and the forehead low. 

In moral development this race is decidedly inferior; their 
intellectual powers are more imitative than inventive, and they 
possess but little strength and originality of mind. 





Fig. 8.— Mongolian Race. Fig. 4.— Ethiopic or Black Race. 

The Ethiopic Kace. — The Negroes of Central Africa, the Caf- 
fres and Hottentots of South Africa, the Natives of Australia, 



How is the Mongolian race distinguished ? What tribes and nations does it 
include ? How is the Ethiopic or black race distinguished ? Who are its prin- 
cipal families ? 



RACES OF MEN. 



15 



and the Islanders of the Indian Archipelago and the Pacific Ocean, 
constitute the principal families of the Ethiopic or black race. 

The black variety of mankind have complexions of jetty hue, 
black, woolly hair, eyes large, black, and prominent, nose broad 
and flat, thick lips, and wide mouth. The head is long from the 
ears back, and narrow: the forehead is low, narrow, and retreat- 
ing; the cheek-bones prominent, the jaws and teeth projecting, 
and the chin small. A long, protruding heel, and a flat shin- 
bone, often distinguish this variety. 

In disposition they are easy, indolent, cheerful, fond of sensual 
pleasure, and lovers of children, fond of gaudy show, but very 
improvident. In intellect the race varies much, but the majority 
of its tribes are low in this respect. There are, however, many 
instances in which individuals of this race have exhibited re- 
spectable talent. 

The American Race. — The Indian tribes, or " Red men," who 
occupied originally nearly the whole of North and South America, 
south of the sixtieth degree of north 
latitude, constitute this variety. 

The people of this race vary con- 
siderably in complexion, but are 
mostly of a reddish-brown color. 
The hair is long, straight, and 
black, the beard deficient, the eyes 
black and deep set, brows promi- 
nent, forehead receding, prominent 
aquiline nose, high cheek-bones, 
small skull, rising high at the crown, 
and the back part flat, large mouth, 
hard, rough features, with fine, 

aight, symmetrical frames. They are averse to cultivation, 
and slow in acquiring knowledge, sedate, proud, restless, sly, re- 
vengeful, fond of war, and wholly destitute of maritime adven- 
ture, and are rapidly disappearing from the earth before the all- 
oonquering march of the •Caucasian. 

The .Malay RACE.— Thifl variety of the human family inhabit 
Bonuo, Java, the Philippine Islands, New Zealand, the Polyne- 
sian Islands, and a part of Madagascar. 




Fig. 5.— AMERICAN RACE. 



How i race distinguished? Where is it found? What coun- 

tries doe.- the Malay race inhabit? 



16 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 




Fig. 6.— Malay Race. 



The Malays have tawny or dark brown skins, coarse, black 
hair, large niouth, broad, short noses, seeming as if broken at 

the root, projecting upper jaws, and 
protruding teeth. The forehead is 
broad and low, the crown of the head 
high. The moral character of the Ma- 
lays is of an inferior order. They are 
active, ingenious, and fond of mari- 
time pursuits, and exhibit consider- 
able intellectual capacity. Yet this 
race is constantly giving way before 
European civilization, and has already 
disappeared from New Holland and 
Van Diemen's Land. 
If the opinion is correct that the stronger race continually 
overgrows all the rest, and gradually obliterates them from the 
earth, the Caucasians are surely destined eventually to ' ' possess 
the land." The history of the whole human race thus far indi- 
cates that such is the order of nature. 

Origin of the Races. — Whether the various races of men 
have each had separate origins, or whether they are descendants 
of a common pair, modified by habits of life, climate, and exter- 
nal conditions, my limits will not permit me to discuss. Dr. 
Pritchard, after a labored investigation, came to the conclusion 
of the original unity of the races of the human family. Other 
authors have examined the subject apparently as critically, and 
settled down upon the opinion of the original diversity of the 
races. 

Dr. Carpenter remarks: "It is a question of great scientific 
interest, as well as one that considerably affects the mode in 
which we treat the races that differ from our own, whether they 
are all of one species ; that is, descended from the same or from 
similar parentage, or whether they are to be regarded as distinct 
species, the first parents of the several races having had the same 
differences among themselves as those now exhibited by their 
descendants. " 

No doubt the question of the natural inferiority of a race or 
tribe of the family of mankind really does affect the manner in 



How is the Malay race distinguished ? What is the unsolved problem with 
regard to the races ? 



RACES OF MEN. 17 

which they arc dealt with by their superiors, and materially 
modifies the >f their consciences in relation to the use or 

abuse of the weaker by the stronger; still this might makes no 
right, nor does this question furnish any reason why the more 
powerful race should maltreat the more feeble. I admit that 
the process of extermination is going on, according to the irre- 
versible laws of nature, from the highest human being to the 
lowest animal. I believe that the stronger animals will exter- 
minate the weaker, that man will eventually run out of existence 
the stronger animals, and that the superior tribe of the human 
family will finally obliterate all traces of the existence of all the 
others ; still I cannot see in the operations of this law any reason 
for oppressing, or even for not striving for the development of 
all men, yes. of all animals, according to their capacities and 
conditions. 80 long as inferior men do exist, our duty to them 
is plain enough. No one pretends that we, the stronger, have 
any right to rid the earth of their presence by violence, or in 
any other way except that {i ordained by Heaven." So far as 
Nature is concerned, she will see that her laws on the subject 
are faithfully executed, without our special interference. As far 
as the feebler races are capable of development and improve- 
ment, they are entitled to the same consideration as those who 
are more highly endowed in organization. 

It is an encouraging indication of progress in the right direc- 
tion that we have ' ' Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to 
Animals." Here is an ample field for the exercise of the better 
emotions of the human heart. But there is a nobler field be- 
yond, and it is to be hoped that organizations for preventing 
cruelty to human beings will not be long wanted ; for tfiere is 
more cruelty inflicted on human beings every day, than on all 
the animals in existence in a year. Besides, the susceptibilities 
of animals to pain is insignificant compared with that of human 
beings. The higher the organization the greater is its capacity 
for happiness or misery. 

What is the tendency of strong and weak races? What is our duty to 
inferior n 



CHAPTER III. 

TEMPERAMENTS. 

By temperament is understood a disproportionate develop- 
ment of some organ, structure or system of organs. The ancients 
distinguished four temperaments, the sanguine, phlegmatic, 
lymphatic and melancholic, based on the predominance of the 
four supposed humors, blood, lymph, yellow bile and black 
bile, each of these being caused by the prevalence of some one 
of the four supposed elements — fire, air, water and earth. The 
modern classification usually adopted by medical writers is into 




Fig. 7.— Nervous Temperament. 
McDonald Clark. 



Fig. 8.- 



-Sangitine Temperament. 
Thomas Moore. 



nervous, sanguine, bilious and lymphatic, as the cerebral, the circu- 
lating, the muscular or the digestive system seem to predominate. 
The nervous temperament (Fig. 7) when well-marked, is mani- 

What do you understand by temperament ? What was the ancient doctrine 
of temperaments ? What is the modern classification ? What is the latest divi- 
sion ? What is the nervous temperament ? 



TEMPERAMENTS. 



19 



tested by a large head, dedicate or sharp features, small bones 
and muscles, and angular points of the body. 

The sanguine temperament, sometimes called the arterial 
is known by broad shoulders, florid complexion, blue 
eyes, light, sandy or brown hair, and a general smoothness of 
form and features. 

The bilious temperament (Fig. 9) is denoted by large, fullmus- 
oles, swelling veins, dark hair and eyes, and dark, brown or 
yellow complexion. 




Fig. 9.— Bilious Tempebamkht. 

D. C. McCollum. 



Fig. 10.— Lymphatic Temperament. 
Hon. Wm. Maule, M. P., of Panmure. 



The lymphatic temperament (Fig. 10) is denoted by a general 
fullness or rotundity of the body, dull, pale appearance of the 
skin, and a disposition inclining to quietude if not indolence. 

The nervous and sanguine are the active, while the bilious and 
lymphatic ore the torpid temperaments, hence, when the cere- 
bral and circulating systems are both predominant over the 
muscular and digestive systems, the person has the organization 
1 to tie' highest manifestations of mental activity and 
Ability; while, if both the muscular and digestive organs 
predominate the character will be sluggish, the body indolent 
and the mind dull. 



} Bflloosr Lymphatic? WhtA i> the san- 
guine temperament sometimes called ? What is the active temperament F 



20 



POPULAK PHYSIOLOGY. 



But a more convenient, more practical and equally scientific 
arrangement of temperament — a division now adopted by most 
phrenologists — is into the motive, vital and mental. The motive 
temperament means a predominance of the moving machinery 
— the muscles and bones; the vital is due to predominance of 
the digestive apparatus, and the mental to the predominance of 
the brain organ. The motive temperament is favorable to strong 

action, the vital to 
good nutrition, and 
the mental to intense 
thinking and feeling. 
In treating of tem- 
peraments most au- 
thors confuse the sub- 
ject by inaccuracy of 
language. They are 
in the habit of assign- 
ing two or more tem- 
peraments to the 
same individual; and 
they speak of a com- 
bination of tempera- 
ments, and of a har- 
monious or balanced 
Fra. 12,-Zadoc Pratt. temperament. Such 

language is not scientifically correct. No person can have more 
than one temperament, for the reason that the most promi- 
nently-developed organ, structure or apparatus constitutes the 
temperament. When, therefore, authors mention two or more 
temperaments, or a combination of temperaments, we are only 
to understand the relative development of the various organs or 
structures. A " balanced temperament" is no temperament at 
all, because there is no disproportionate development. The 
proper phrase in this case is balanced structural development, 
or harmonious organization. If a person is marked on a phre- 
nological chart as having the nervous temperament 6, the san- 
guine 5, the bilious 4 and the lymphatic 3, the meaning is that 




What is the motive temperament ? Vital ? Mental ? To what are those 
temperaments respectively conducive ? Can an individual have several tem- 
peraments ? 



TEMPERAMENTS. 



21 



he is of the nervous temperament, because the brain preponder- 
ates, and that the circulating, the muscular and osseous and 
digestive systems are developed in the ratio indicated by the 
figures. 

The Motive Temperament. — This is well represented in the 
cuts of Zadoc Pratt 
and the mother of 
Rev. John Wesley 
(Figs. 11 and 12). 

In the motive tem- 
perament the bones 
are large and broad, 
and the muscles full, 
dense . and strong. 
The person is said to 
be sine wy. The figure 
is usually tall, the 
neck and face long, 
cheek bones high, 
shoulders broad and 
the chest full. The 
complexion varies, but 
the hair is strong and 
abundant. The fea- 
tures are strongly 
marked, and in ex- 
treme cases the expres- 
sion is harsh and rigid, 
when the dispo- 
sition is kind and phil- 
anthropic. The whole 
organization seems especially constituted for bodily activity; 
and persons of this temperament are inclined to be industrious, 
persistent in their vocations, constant in friendship, energetic 
and ambitious. 

THB Vital TEMPERAMENT.— -There are few better illusi rations 
of the vital temperament than Lather, the great reformer, 




Fig. 12.— Mrs. Wesley. 



What are the peculiarities of the motive temperament? What characters 
represent it ? What tissues represent the temporal lyf 



22 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 




Fig. 13.— Martin Luther, 
tinuous labor. 



and Miss Braddon, the sensa- 
tion novelist (Figs. 13 and 

14). 

The vital temperament is 
marked by breadth and round- 
ness of body. The chest is 
large, abdomen full, limbs 
plump, and hands and feet 
relatively small. The neck is 
short and thick, the features 
smooth, and the expression 
generally mirthful. Persons 
who have this temperament 
large are disposed to. be ac- 
tive, both bodily and men- 
tally; they love excitement, 
enjoy athletic amusements, 
but are adverse to hard con- 
In disposition they are genial and amiable, but 

inclined to be impul- 
sive and versatile. 

The Mental Tem- 
perament. — As the 
brain is the organ of 
mind, its dispropor- 
tionate development 
must of course consti- 
tute the mental tem- 
perament. It is well 
illustrated in Poe, the 
poet, and Ritchie, the 
actress (Figs. 15 and 
17). 

In the mental tem- 
perament the frame is 
slight, and the head 
Fig. 14.— Mary Elizabeth Braddon. relatively large ; the 

What are the peculiarities of the vital temperament ? Of the mental ? What 
characters represent each ? What temperament is most conducive to muscular 
activity ? What to mental power ? What to good digestion? 




TEMPERAMENTS. 



23 



forehead is high, face inclined to paleness, eyes light and ex- 
pressive, features delicate, neck slender, chest small or only 




Fio. 15.— Edgar A. Poe. Fig. 16.— Anna C. M. PciTCHiE. 

moderately full, and hair soft and fine. The thoughts are rapid, 
senses acute, imagination lively, and the moral emotions keen. 




Fig. 17.— Sir John Fuvnki.tn. 



Fig. 18.— Madame Be E 



Balanced Tempbb \mk\t. — Very few persons better illustrate 
what La called the harmonious temperament, and what is prop- 



24 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



erly termed the equable development, than Franklin the navi- 
gator, and De Stael the philosopher (Figs. 17 and 18). 
It is difficult to indicate the character of a harmonious devel- 




Fig. 19.— Divines. 



opment. It is simply normal. Scientifically speaking, it has 
all character or no character. It has the best adjustment of all 
the parts, and under normal influences, is the best possible or- 
ganization. But, under temptation or adverse circumstances, 

What is balanced temperament ? What characters represent it ? Why is a 
harmonious structural development inconsistent with temperament ? 



TEMPERAMENTS. 25 

it is as liable to err in one direction as another. Hence, the 
future of all persons of this temperament depends on education, 
and suggests the importance of that wisest of all the sayings of 
wise men, " Train up a child in the way it should go." 

In the preceding group of the heads of ten distinguished 
divines, some of whom are still living, the reader will readily 
recognize, and may profitably study each of the temperaments 
— motive, vital and mental — and their so-called combinations. 

Much importance has been justly attached to the subject of 
temperament, both as respects the training of children and the 
education of adults, and the selection of companions for life 
in the matrimonial relation. Respecting physical and mental 
training there is much error, not only in our system of common- 
school education, but also in vocations and habits of life. 
Children who are weak in body often take precociously to 
books, and the early indications of mental talent are often 
ited with a forcing or hot-house culture, to the utter ruin 
of the bodily constitution; while children who manifest vigor- 
masoles are put to the exercises or business pursuits which 
ravate the disproportion between mind and body, and pro- 
duce an adult with a strong body and imbecile mind. The 
proper application of the doctrine of temperaments reverses 
this custom. The feebler parts of the organism should be most 
assiduously trained. A harmonious organization should always 
be aimed at in the rearing of children and education of youth. 
There will always be unbalanced conditions enough; and when 
the child has attained the vigorous development of full- rounded 
manhood or womanhood, there will be time enough to cultivate 
•ial talents. In this manner only can genius be placed on 
an enduring basis, and extraordinary original capacity be ren- 
dered safe to its possessor and most useful to mankind. 

temperament of a child should be carefully studied and 
judiciously managed from the moment it begins to walk and 
talk. If th*» temperament be decidedly motive, its mind should 
be frequently exercised with pictures and such toys as best serve 
the purpose of object- teaching; leaving it to exercise its muscu- 
Btem cit will in any proper plays or amusements. 

mi' nt? What organs 



26 



POPULAK PHYSIOLOGY. 



If the temperament be strongly vital, care should be taken 
that the mental and muscular exercises are properly balanced. 

But the tendency of civilization is to develop the nervous 
temperament at the expense of the vital, producing a race of 
educated imbeciles, or knowing minds in unsound bodies — theo- 
retically intelligent, but practically useless. Children who mani- 
fest a largely mental temperament should have little to do with 
primary schools as they are usually conducted. They should 




Figs. 20 and 21.— Well-Balanced Organization, 

not go to such schools at all until seven or eight years of age, 
and then not be confined to them more than one or at most two 
hours. Such children — girls as well as boys — should be encour- 



What children should have little to do with books ? What habits are cor- 
rective of an excessive nervous temperament ? 



TEMPERAMENTS. 27 

aged to work or play much out of doors, breathing the pure 
air and developing the vital organs, while book-education should 
be the incident, not the habit; the avocation, not the vocation. 
Especially should they be guarded against the sensational liter- 
ature and trashy novels that deluge the land, perverting the 
intellect and corrupting the morals, as destructively to the 
whole mental nature as are the effects of alcohol and tobacco 
on the vital organism. 

In the selection of conjugial partners, some authors advo- 
cate the rule of similarity, and others that of diversity of tem- 
peraments ; and it has been most absurdly pretended by some 
writers on human temperaments, that two perfectly harmonious 
temperaments are constitutionally incompatible, indeed, u phy- 
siologically incestuous." The teachings of nature, however, as 
manifested in the history of all the races of men, and as illus- 
trated throughout the whole animal kingdom, are not difficult 
to understand. 

Vital laws are the same everywhere. Most farmers very well 
know that, if he would have the most desirable crops he must 
plant the best quality of seed. And if he raises animals to take 
the premiums at the fairs, he selects the best stock, and attends 
carefully to all hygienic conditions during the period of growth. 
Food, air, water, temperature, exercise, and shelter are sedu- 
lously adapted to their needs. And the result is, animals of 
"pure blood," "high type," symmetrical, beautiful, perfect. 
So it would be with human beings were the laws of life and the 
conditions of health as carefully applied to them. 

No agriculturist would hesitate to propagate, nor would any 
amateur stock-raiser hesitate to breed from parents whose tem- 
peraments were "balanced," or " harmonious," provided both 
were healthy, vigorous and well-developed. 

A young man and a young woman, personally agreeable to 
each other, having each a harmonious organization, are cer- 
tainly well-mated. Nor are considerable excesses or deficiencies 
in certain mental qualities or physical powers seriously objec- 
tionable, unlesfl both parties have precisely the same excesses or 
deficiencies. If both are abnormal in the same direction the 



How b temperament applicable to the marriage relation ? What is the first 
condition for having perfect livii i| 



£8 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

offspring will inevitably suffer ; whereas, if one is full and large 
in constitutional endowment, wherein the other is small or 
greatly deficient, the tendency to a greatly unbalanced organ- 
ization in the offspring is corrected. This whole matter of mar- 
rying according to temperament is, therefore, reduced to two 
simple rules. 1. Good health. 2. The avoidance of similar ex- 
cesses or deficiences. With these rules in mind, the tall and 
short, fat and lean, blonde or brunette, may marry each other, 
or may marry temperaments and qualities like their own, with 
no apprehension of evil consequences; but, on the contrary, 
assured that, if their lives are in harmony with the laws of their 
being, their union will be blessed, and " the world will be the 
better for it." 

The figures 20 and 21 exhibit the " balanced temperament," 
or harmoniously developed organization of the male and female 
forms. 

What are the essential rules for happy marriages ? 



CHAPTER IV. 

BODILY POSITIONS. 

A single glance at the situation of the various organs of the 
body, with respect to each other and to the bony skeleton, 
shows the importance of maintaining under all circumstances, 
the normal position. Erectitude is one of the most obvious 
laws of the vital machinery, yet almost every one is crooked. 
ik Blessed are the upright" physically as well as morally. 

Each structure and organ is provided with all the room 
necessary for its functional purposes, but no more. Nature is 
a rigid economist. She never wastes. She provides the machi- 
nery of life, and the conditions for its normal operation. Obey 
the law and live, disobey and die — these are her irrepealable 
mandates. The vital organs have definite relations to every- 
thing in the universe. Observe and conform to these relations 
and be well ; disregard them and suffer. Such is the stern 
teaching of ^Nature's volume. But it is also benevolent. If 
laws can be disregarded with impunity they are practically an- 
nulled, and exist in vain. Nature commits no error in the enact- 
ment of law, and provides no remedies for their infraction. Suf- 
fering is inevitable so long as we act in disobedience to the 
laws inherent in the vital organism. Unless this were so we 
could never learn to obey the laws. Experience may be a dear 
school. The penalties for transgression may be terrible. But 
neither is too costly or severe until it teaches us the greatest 
practical truth that the human mind is capable of compre- 
hending — that all good is in the line of obedience to organic 
law, and all evil in opposition thereto. 

"Cease to do evil and learn to do well" in all things, is the 
divine philosophy, and applicable to every department of hu- 
man life. In few things arc human beings more prone to do 



What is an important law oi the vital machinery ? IIow ia all good attainable ? 
How does all evil result ! 



30 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



evil and more regardless of all health considerations than in 
respect to bodily positions. 

" Just as the twig is bent the tree 's inclined." 

A great majority of children in our primary schools become 
more or less abnormally inclined in manhood, because they 

are bent out of shape in 
childhood by unhygienic 
seats and benches. 

In the cut (Fig. 23) are 
seen the situation and re- 
lations of the principal in- 
ternal organs of the body. 

The important lesson de- 
ducible from the illustration 
before us is, that in all of 
our exercises, active or pas- 
sive, we should maintain 
the normal positions of the 
organs. In lying, sitting, 
standing, walking, running, 
working or playing, use the 
joints, and never bend or 
compress any other organ, 
part or structure. 

It is evident that, if the 
body is habitually bent so 
as to approximate the heart, 
A, and stomach, D, or if 
the chest is restricted by 
lacing, so as to lessen the 
diameter of the chest in the 
region of the diaphragm, d, 
every organ of the thoracic 
and abdominal cavity is 
more or less compressed, 
and most of them actually 
Fig. 23.— Internal Viscera. displaced. 




What is a great error in primary schools ? What lesson is taught by the relations 
Of the viscera ? What is the rule for bending the body ? 



BODILY POSITIONS. 31 

The horrid effects of tight-lacing (quite as ruinous to young 
ladies as tobacco-using is to young men), or of lacing at all, 
and of binding the clothing around the hips, instead of sus- 
pending it from the shoulders, can never be fully realized with- 
out a thorough education in anatomy and physiology. And 
if the illustrations here presented should effect the needed 
reform in fashionable dress, the resulting health and happi- 
ness to the human race would be incalculable; for the health 
of the mothers of each generation determines, in a very large 
measure, the vital stamina of the next. 

It is obvious that, if the diameter of the chest, at its lower 
and broader part, is diminished by lacing, or any other cause, to 
the extent of one-fourth or one-half, the lungs, B. B, are pressed 
in towards the heart. A, the lower ribs are drawn together and 
preati on the liver, C, and spleen, E, while the abdominal 

g&nfl are pressed downward on the pelvic viscera. The 
stomach. B. is compressed in its transverse diameter ; both 
the stomach, upper intestines and liver are pressed downward 
on the kidneys. M, M, and on the lower portions of the bowels 
(the intestinal tube is denoted by the letters /, j and k), while 
the bowels are crowded down on the uterus, z, and bladder, 
g. Thus every vital organ is either functionally obstructed or 
mechanically di -ordered, and disease, more or less aggravated, 
the condition of all. In post-mortem examinations the liver has 
■n found deeply indented by the constant and prolonged pres- 
of the ribs, in consequence of tight-lacing. 

The brain-organ, protected by a bony inclosure, has not yet 
n distorted externally by the contrivances of milliners and 
mantua-makers ; but. lacing the chest, by interrupting the cir- 
cul-ttion of the blood, prevents its free return from the vessels 
of the brain, and so permanent congestion of that organ, with 
constant liability to headache, vertigo or worse affections, be- 
second nature." And this condition is often aggra- 
vated by heavy water-falls, chignons and other ridiculous head- 

The vital resources of every person, and all available power, 
of mind and body, are measurable by the respiration. Pre- 



•■ brain affected by improper < 
n m \m the *yeC . <\ | 



32 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



cisely as the breathing is lessened the length of life is short- 
ened ; not only this, but life is rendered correspondingly use- 
less and miserable while it does exist. 

It is impossible for any child, whose mother has diminished 
her breathing capacity by lacing, to have a sound and vigor- 




Fig. 24.— Anterior View op Thorax 
in the Venus of Medicis. 



Fig. 25.— The Same in a Lady De- 
formed by Stays. 



ous organization. If girls will persist in ruining their vital 
orgns as they grow up to womanhood, and if women will con- 



How are longevity and happiness affected by fashionable dress ? How are off- 
spring affected by tight-lacing mothers I 



BODILY POSITIONS. 33 

tinue this destructive habit, the race must inevitably deterior- 
ate. It may be asserted, therefore, without exaggeration that, 
not only the welfare of the future generations, but the salvation 
of the race depends on the correction of this evil habit. 

The pathological consequences of continued and prolonged 
pressure on any vital structure are innutrition, congestion, 
inflammation and ulceration, resulting in weakness, waste of 
substance and destruction of tissue. The normal sensibility 
of the part is also destroyed. No woman can ever forget the 
pain she endured when she first applied the corsets; but in time 
the compressed organs become torpid; the muscles lose their 
contractile power, and she feels dependent on the mechanical 
support of the corset. But the mischief is not limited to local 
weakness and insensibility. The general strength and general 
nihility correspond with the breathing capacity. If she has 
diminished her ' k breath of life," she has just to that extent 
destroyed all normal sensibility. She can neither feel nor think 
normally. But in place of pleasurable sensations and enno- 
bling thoughts, are an indescribable array of aches, pains, 
weaknesses, irritations and nameless distresses of body, with 
dreamy vagaries, fitful impulses and morbid sentimentalities of 
mind. 

And yet another evil is to be mentioned to render the 
catalogue complete. Every particle of food must be aerated 
in the lungs before it can be assimilated. It follows, therefore, 
that no one can be well-nourished who has not a full, free and 
unimpeded action of the lungs. 

The effects of improper dress on the bony skeleton, and 
dally on the spinal column, are shown in Figs. 24, 25, 2§ 
and 21, which every physician knows are not overdrawn. 

]n the contracted chest, represented by Fig. 25 (by no means 
an uncommon case), the external measurement is reduced one- 
half: hut as the upper portions of the lungs cannot be fully 
inflated until the lower portions are fully expanded, it follows 
that the breathing capacity is diminished more than one-half. 
it is wonderful how any one can endure existence, or long 
Survive, in this devitalized condition; yet thousands do, and, 

What arc the pathological consequences of tight-lacing ? How docs it affect sensi- 
bility ! How affect digestion ? 



34 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



with careful nursing, manage to bring into the world several 
sickly children. 

The spinal distortion (Fig. 27) is one of the ordinary conse- 
quences of lacing. No one who laces habitually can have a 




Fig. 20.— Posterior View op Thorax Fig. 27.— Posterior View of Thorax Com- 
in a Natural State. pressed and Deformed by Stats. 

straight or strong back. The muscles being unbalanced, be- 
come flabby or contracted, unable to support the trunk of the 
body erect, and a curvature — usually a double curvature — of the 
spine is the consequence. 



How does improper dress affect the spinal column ? How the muscles ? What 
malposition results ? 



BODILY POSITIONS. 35 

And if anything wore needed to aggravate the spinal curva- 
ture, intensify the compression of the internal viscera, and add 
to the general deformity, it is found in the modern contrivance 
of stilted gaiters. These are made with heels so high and nar- 
row that locomotion is awkward and painful, the centre of 
gravity is shifted " to parts unknown," and the head is thrown 
forwards and the hips projected backwards to maintain per- 
pendicularity, rendering walking and all other voluntary ex- 
ercises not only distressing to the person, but disagreeable to 
the spectator. 

To sit or stand in a crooked position, inclining the head and 
knees forwards, overstretches the middle spinal muscles, re- 
verses the normal curvature of the spinal column, compresses 
the liver, stomach and lungs, and is in effect equivalent to lacing 
the waist. Figs. 28 and 29 show the right and wrong positions in 
s landing. 

[ung on two or three pillows, or on a bolster and pillow, 
is a prevalent yet pernicious custom. If long continued the 
effect is surely a distortion of the spine to some extent. If 
the head is raised high while sleeping, the stomach and lungs 
are injuriously compressed, and the upper intestines pressed 
downward on the pelvic organs. If children are allowed to 
sleep habitually on high pillows, spinal curvature and general 
debility will be the inevitable consequences. One pillow is 
enough for any person, and that should be only of moderate 
size. Figs. 30 and 31 exhibit the right and wrong positions 
in contrast. 

Malpositions in sitting seem to be among the inci'easing evils 
of "high civilization' 1 without physiological education. This 
habit is mainly attributable to the immensely unanatomical 

ttstruction ol chairs, benches, sofas, pews, etc. jSot one 
school-house in all the land, not excepting those in which 
physiology is prof.-- aught, has a chair or a bench that 

a child fan >it upright on without a constant and consciously 

painful eflbrt. Nor have we ever seen, in private families or 

public institutions, halls or churches, stages or ferry-boat-, 

railroad cars or steamers, a single seal constructed on hygienic 

What is the effect of high-heeled >-ho< m ? Of hitting or standing iu crooked posi- 
tions ? Of high pillows ? Of unanatomical seats ? 



36 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY 



principles. Figs. 32 and 33 show the normal and abnorna 
positions. 





Fig. 28.— Standing Erect. 



Fig. 29.— Malposition. 




Fig. 30.— Proper Position in Bed. 



Children who early 
acquire and continue 
in the habit of sitting 
in normal or abnormal 
positions will either 
preserve the erectitude 
of the spinal column, 



How do the normal and abnormal positions acquired in childhood affect the person 
in adult life ? 



BODILY POSITIONS. 



37 



as shown in Fig. 34, or become crooked-backed, as seen in 
Fig. 36. 

It is apparent that, inclining the head forwards and bending 
the body at the middle of the back, instead of on the hip- 
joints, necessitates a backward projection of the entire spinal 

column, with a corres- 
ponding incurvation or 
pressure anteriorly ; 
hence the whole body- 
is distorted from the 
crown of the head to 
the soles of the feet; 
more than a hundred 
muscles are unbal- 
anced, and every organ 
Fig. 31.— Improper Position in Bed. and limb is weakened. 






Fig. £2.— Correct Sitting Position. 



Fig. 33.— Misposition in Sitting. 



In all exercises, in walking, running, lifting and in manual 
l.'ibor, the i i th«' individual is always determined by 

tip- number of muselee that are brought into co-operative act ion. 



now doei bendJ I tad body aliect the Hpinul column * LIow is muscular 

i>owcr t<> !>•• measured I 



38 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



But, if the body be crooked, or any part of it out of the normal 
relation to other parts, some muscles will be strained by over- 
action, while others will become relaxed from insufficient ac- 
tion, and all weakened — just as in the crooked ways of 





34.— Natural Spine. 



35. — Distorted Spine. 



society some persons are drudged to death while others die of 
indolence. 

If seats were properly constructed persons would sit upright, 
for the reason that it would be the most comfortable posi- 
tion. It would be painful to sit otherwise. The chairs, benches, 
sofas, pews or other seats, should fit the small of the back, the 
curve of the hips and the whole length of the thighs, as accu- 
rately as a well-made shoe is shaped to the foot, or harness to 
the body of a horse. But the commercial articles reverse this 



How are the muscles affected by malpositions ? What is the principle for con- 
structing anatomical seats ? 



BODILY POSITIONS. 



39 



-T- 



rule: they press unduly on the upper part of the thighs and 
the upper part of the back, and afford no support whatever 
where it is principally needed. Moreover, in addition to the 
defective shape, they are, on the avert 
two inches too high, rendering it impossi- 
ble for the feet to rest evenly and easily 
on the floor. No wonder that, on chairs 
which are a torment to one who tries to 
sit erect, persons are continually leaning 
back against the wall, drawing up their 
feet, placing one foot across the opposite 
knee, bracing one or both feet against 
hair rounds or any adjacent object, 
getting into all sorts of uncouth and 
ridiculous attitudes. 

The cut (Fig. 36) represents the out-line 
of our ideal chair. We place it on record 
for the benefit of the future generations, 
in the hope that some ingenious mechanic 
or pecunious philanthropist will supply one of the great wants 
of the age by introducing it. 

In order to ascertain for himself the shape of a scat con- 
structed on hygienic principles, the reader has only to seat 
himself erect in a common chair (after having sawed off the 
legs an inch or two, so that his feet will rest evenly on the 
floor), and have an assistant pad all the places where there are 
vacancies, until the chair or padding fits him from the shoulders 
to the knees. If this is accurately managed he will have the 
outline of a chair represented in the cut. 



Fig. 3T).— Ttik Anatomi- 
cal Seat. 



What are the objections to ordinary seats ? What is the principle for the con- 
traction of hygienic seats ? 



CHAPTER V. 

^HE BODILY FRAMEWORK. 

The framework of the body is composed of the bones (Oste- 
ology) and ligaments (Syndesmology). The uses of the bones 
are to serve as fixed points for the attachment of muscles, 
whose contractions perform the principal motions of the body, 
and to form solid walls for the protection of the viscera. The 
ligaments bind the bones together. 

In man the original framework of the body is cartilaginous. 
The greater portion of this cartilage becomes ossified in time, 
and is hence termed temporary ; but in some places it remains 
permanent, and so covers the adjacent surfaces of bones as to 
admit, in consequence of its elasticity, of some degree of mo- 
tion between them, as in the case of the vertebrae of the spinal 
column. Cartilage also forms a considerable part of the frame- 
work of the chest, connecting the lower or short ribs with the 
breast-bone, or sternum. Another kind of cartilage is arranged 
in the form of plates, or lamellae, and forms the shape of canals 
and passages, as in the external ear, nose, eustachian tube, 
larynx, and windpipe. 

In the movable joints the ligaments are lined with a mem- 
brane (Synovial), which secretes a lubricating fluid (Synovia). 

The relation which the bony structure bears to the whole body 
is represented in Fig. 37. 

COMPOSITION OF BONE. 

The proximate constituents of bone, as determined by chem- 
ical analysis, are : 

Cartilage (parts) 32.17 

Blood-vessels, " 1.13 

Phosphate of lime " 51.04 

Of what is the bodily framework composed ? What is temporary cartilage ? 
Permanent ? What is Synovia ? 



THE SKELETON. 



41 



Carbonate of lime, (parts) 
Filiate of lime, " 

Phosphate of Magnesia, " 
Soda, Chloride of Sodium, ' ' 



11.30 
2.00 
1.16 

1.20 



100.00 
But. as chemistry is always destructive, and never construc- 
tive, ir must be remembered that chemical analyses, so far from 
determining the constituents of an organic structure, only as- 
certain what elements are left after the analysis is completed. 
The peculiarity of living matter, as we shall explain hereafter, 
consists more in molecular arrangement than in elementary 
constituent?, and of this chemistry can never take cognizance. 



THE SKELETON. 




The skeleton of an adult human 


being 


consists of two hun- 


dred and forry-six distinct pieces. 






Bones of the head. 




. 8 


Ear — ossicula auditus, 


. . 


6 


Face, 




. 14 


Teeth, .... 




32 


Back, — vertebral column . 




. 24 


Ribs, — twelve pairs. 


. 


24 


Tongue, — os hyoides . 




. 1 


Upper extremities 


> 


64 


Breast, — sternum, 




. 1 


Pelvis 




4 


Lower extremities, 




. 60 


Sesamoid, — average, 


• 


8 



246 

Some anatomists exclude the sesamoid bones and teeth in 
their enumeration of the pieces of the skeleton, because their 
structure, development and growth are different from ordinary 
bone. 

Although the human skeleton is far from being a " thing 
of beauty" to the careless observer, it is to the philosophic 
mind an admirable study. No one would think of it to embel- 



What is the composition of bone? How many I pose the tinman 

skeleton? 



42 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



lish a book, ornament a parlor, or grace an exhibition of the 
fine arts. Yet no part of a living structure, not even the brain 
itself, better illustrates the idea of supreme wisdom, and de- 
clares that, 

" The hand that made us is Divine." 

Every rough surface, every projection or depression, every 

notch, canal and foramina, 
has some special use and 
adaptation. It serves for the 
attachment of muscles, the 
passage of vessels and nerves, 
and the protection of vital 
parts. Nothing is amiss. No 
human ingenuity could im- 
prove the workmanship by 
adding or abstracting. 

The dome of the capitol at 
Washington is said to be the 
most magnificent structure 
of the kind on the earth. 
And when the irregular parts, 
angular castings, and rough 
materials of its framework 
were being prepared and ad- 
justed, no one but an ac- 
complished architect could 
imagine what they were in- 
tended for. But the builders 
displayed quite as much skill 
in contriving them as they 
did in planning the beautiful 
curves and graceful propor 
tions of its exterior. 



STRUCTURE OF BONE. 

The bony structure cannot 
be said to possess any dis- 
tinctive vital property; but 




Fig. 37— Relations of Bones to Bulk. 



What purposes do the projections, depressions, etc., of bone subserve ? Has 
bony structure any distinct vital property? 




Pi System. 



44 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

as it is traversed by blood-vessels and nerves, its vitality pertains 
to its muscular and nervous tissues. Bone is a dense subfibrous 
basis filled with minute cells, and traversed in all directions by 
inosculating canals, termed Haversian, which give passage to 
vessels and nerves. These cells are irregular in form, and give 
off numerous branching tubes, which, by various intercom 
munications, constitute a very delicate network. 

DEVESTING MEMBRANE. 

All bones are covered with a dense fibrous membrane, termed 
periosteum, except at their articulating surfaces, where they are 
lined with a thin layer of cartilage. That portion of the peri- 
osteum which covers the bones of the skull is termed, pericra- 
nium, and where it. is extended over cartilages, it is called peri- 
clirondrium. The internal cavities of long bones, and the 
canals and cells of others, are lined by a membrane termed 
medullary, and filled with an oily substance, termed medulla, 
or marrow. 

DEVELOPMENT OF BONE. 

Like all organized structures, the osseous exists primordially 
in the condition of extremely minute vesicles, or cells. Each 
cell is composed of a thin membrane, enclosing a fluid matter, 
in which is a small, denser mass, constituting the nucleus 
around which the cell itself was originally developed. Within 
each nucleus may usually be found one or more smaller gran- 
ules, or cells, termed nucleolus, or nucleoli. In the language of 
the Hydropathic Encyclopaedia, ' ' And whether there are within 
these nucleoli yet smaller vesicles, and within them more minute 
nucleoli still, and so on, must be left to imagination. The 
human mind must grasp infinity before it can comprehend the 
primal atom, or starting point, of vital organization. " 

STAGES OP OSSIFICATION. 

Although the bony structure may be regarded as the primary 
and lowest grade of organized matter (unless we except the 
woody fibers of the vegetable), yet its development and growth 

What are Haversian canals ? What is periosteum ? Pericranium ? Peri- 
chondrium ? Of what is a cell composed ? 



THE BODILY FRAMEWORK. 



45 



are still among the marvels of living things. Why and how its 

elements arrange themselves, or are arranged, into one tissue 
instead of another, and into definite relations to each other, 
science has not yet revealed. All that philosophy or faith can 
say. in the present state of our knowledge, is, " There is a 
power which directs att. n 




Fig. 39.— Minute Structure op Bone. 



Fig. 39 represents a microscopic 
view of the structure of bone. 
1. One of the Haversian can- 
als. 2. The same, with tho 
cells and tubuli. 3. Area of 
one of the canals, i 4. Direc- 
tion of the medullary or cen- 
tral part. The upper part of 
tho cut represents several 
long cells with their tubuli ; 
the lower part shows the out- 
lines of several other canals. 

Histologists distin- 
guish three stages in the 
process by which bone is 
formed, gelatinous, cartil- 
aginous, and ossiiic. The 
first recognizable change 
of ordinary vesicles to- 
wards bony structure is 

an aggregation of minute cells, of a jelly-like consistence. In 
the process of growth these cells are separated by intercellular 
substance, which is transparent and fluid at first, but gradually 
becomes condensed and opake, constituting the cartilaginous 
„re of ossification. Vascular canals are next formed, by a 
union of cells in rows and the liquefaction of the adhering sur- 
Cace& The next distinct change is into osseous substance. This 
Kl effected by the concentration of all the vascular canals to 
centra] points, each one of which is termed, punctutn ossifioa- 
tionis. - As the earthy particles are deposited around the cen- 
tral point," says the work above quoted, "the surrounding car- 
tilaginous cells become elongated, and within each cell two <>r 
three nucleoli are developed. Each of th< >ndary < ,,i lN 

Whi gesol oeaiflcatton I What la understood by punctum ossl- 



46 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



soon attains the size of the parent cell, the membrance of 
which disappears, and the newly-formed cells 
are separated by freshly-effused intercellular 
substance. Still progressing, each newly- 
formed cell produces four, five, or six young 
cells, which destroy the parent membrane, 
and attain a larger size, that of the parent 
cell being l-1500th of an inch in diameter, all 
the cells being separated as before by inter- 
cellular substance. This process of repro- 
duction is repeated yet again, each cell pro- 
/ iJSlff ducing as many as its parent did, which 

form in clusters of from thirty to fifty. The 
clusters are oval in figure, and are disposed 
longitudinally to the axis of the bone, while 
the cells are arranged transversely. Very fine 
and delicate fibers, within the intercellular 
substance, commencing at the ossifying point, 
and extending through every part of the bone, 
longitudinally in long, and radiatingly in flat 
bones, are, lastly, formed, and complete the 
process of ossification. These fibres embrace 
each cluster of cells, and send branches be- 
tween the individual cells of each group, by 
which the network of bone is formed, while 
the areolae and Haversian canals are formed 
by the conjunction of the cells. A highly 
magnifying power shows the ossific fibers to 
be composed of minute cells, of an elliptical 
form, and having central nucleoli." 



Fig. 40— Vertebral Column. 
The divisions of true vertebrae and the distinct parts of each 
are shown in Fig. 40, which represents the vertebral col- 
umn entire as seen from the left side. 1. Two semi- 
facets, which articulate with the head of the rib. 2. Spi- 
nous process. 3, 4. Two foramina, each resulting from 
the union of two vertebra?. 5. Cervical region and its 
corresponding curve. 6. Dorsal region and its correspond- 
ing curve. 7. Lumbar region and its corresponding curve. 
8. Sacrum. 

How are Haversian canals formed ? Of what are ossific fibres composed ? 
What are the regions of the vertebral column? 



THE BODILY FRAMEWORK. 47 



THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN\ 

The bones of the back, constituting the vertebral column, are 
divided into the serptt cervical, belonging to the neck, the twelve 
dorsal, forming the contra] portion of the column, and the five 
lumbar, pertaining to the loins. These twenty-four pieces con- 
stitute the true vertebra in contradistinction to the falsi d< rtebrce, 
which are the pelvic continuation of the spinal column. The 
false vertebrae are divided into the sacrum and coccyx. In young 
persons the sacrum consists of five pieces, and the coccyx of 
four, so that the vertebral column originally comprises thirty- 
three pieces. 



The distinctive parts of a vertebra are shown in 
Fin. 41. 1. The body, concave in the centre, 
and rising into a sharp ridge on each side. 2. 
The lamina. 3. The part termed pedicle, ren- 
dered concave by the superior intervertebral 
notch. 4. Spinous process, its extremity bifur- 
cated. 5. Transverse process. (5. Vertebral 
foramen. 7. Superior articular process. 8. In- 
ferior articular process. 

The first cervical vertebra, termed Fig. 41.— A Cervical Vertebra. 
atlas, is exceptional in having no body, 

while the second cervical, dentatvs, has a tooth-like projection 
around which the atlas moves, constituting the neck-joint. 

In the plate 1 Pigs. 42 to 49) are represented all the bones of 
the trunk, with the shoulder blades, bones of the pelvis, and 
the different kinds of vertebrae. 

The first cervical vertebra supports the head, hence its name, 
atlas. It is a simple ring of bone moving on the second cervical, 
which Is called the axis. 

The axis has a Large body, and its strong, tooth-like process, 
called odontoid, rises perpendicularly, and is articulated with 
the anterior arch of the atlas, while its posterior surface is 
firmly bound by a strong transverse ligament. The atlas, turn- 
ing on the axis, moves the head laterally as though it were turn- 
ing on a piv.t. as well as to some extent forward and backward. 

The seventh cervical vertebra is termed prominens, because Its 

1 column divided? Of how many pieces ta it comp< 
What are the distinctive | 




48 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



Fig. 44. 




Bones of the Back, Trunk, and Pelvis. 



*?ig. 42. Framework of trunk. Fig. 43. Spinal column; 1, atlas (Fig. 45, upper, Fig. 
44, lower view of same); 2, dentatus (Fig. 46, upper view); 2 to 3, other cervical 
vertebrae (Fig. 47, upper view of); 4 to 6, dorsal vertebras (Fig. 48, side view of one); 
5 to 7, lumbar vertebras (Fig. 49, side view of one); 8 to 9, sacrum; below 9, coccyx. 



THE BODILY FRAMEWORK. 49 

spinous process projects backwards beyond the others, thus 
occasioning the prominent part of the back of the oeck -a fact 

be kept in mind by persons who desire not to mistake a 
normal condition for a deformity or miscurvature. 'This promi- 
nence is terminated by a tubercle, t«> which the strong Ligament 
of the neck, ligamentum nucTwe, is attached. 

The dorsal vertebra are articulated with the ribs. Tor which 
purpose each one is marked on each side with facets for receiv- 
ing the heads of the ribs. 

The lumbar vertebra axe the Largest; their bodies are thicker 
before than behind; their spinal cavity i^ large and oval, and 
their spinous processes are thick and broad. 

The sacrum is of a triangular figure, concave in front and 
convex behind. It is marked, in the adult, by four transverse 
ridges, which indicate the consolidation of the live separate 
pie< 

The which terminates the vertebral column inferiorly, 

d originally of four small pieces (shown in Fig. 43), 
which gradually unite into one; and this one becomes consoli- 
dated with the sacrum soon after the middle period of life. 

11 The w ' brcU column" -ays the " Hydropathic Ency- 

clopaedia," "represents two pyramids, with 'bases applied to 
h other.' the sacrum and coccyx constituting the lower, and 
all the vertebra\ except the atlas, forming the upper. The bodies 
of the vertebra are broad in the cervical region, narrower in 
the middle of the dorsal, and again broad in the lumbar region. 
The spinous processes are horizontal in the cervical, gradually 
Mi<iu<- in the upper part of the dorsal, nearly vertical 
and imbricated in the middle of the back, and again horizontal 
towards the lower part. The transfers* j>r<><-iss<s gradually in- 

Me in Length from the axis to the lirst dorsal vertebra; in 
the dorsal region they project obliquely backward, and dimin- 
ish suddenly in length in the eleventh or twelfth, where they 
-mall. Tie' intenn rU t>r<it foramina cure Openings formed 
by the Juxtaposition of the vertebral notches; they are smallest 
in the cervical region, gradually enlarging to the Lumbar. 
/ groovi La the whole Length of the column 

Wli nf the back of the nook! What \t Hm 



50 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



on either side of the spinous processes, for lodging the princi- 
pal muscles of the hack." 

BONES OF THE CHEST. 

The twelve pairs of ribs on the sides, and the sternum, or 
breast-bone, in front, constitute the thorax. 

Fig. 50 is a front view of the thorax. 
1. The manubrium (upper portion 
of the sternum). 2. Its body (mid- 
dle portion). 3. Its ensiform car- 
tilage (lower portion). 4. First dor- 
sal vertebra. 5. Last dorsal verte- 
bra. 6. First rib. 7. Head of first 
rib. 8. Its neck. 9. Its tubercle. 
10. Seventh rib. 11. Costal carti- 
lages of the ribs. 12. Last two 
false ribs. 13. The groove along 
the lower border of each rib. 

The upper seven pairs of 
ribs are termed sternal, or 
true ribs, because they are 
articulated with the ster- 
num. The five lower pairs 
are termed false, or asternal, 
because they are connected 
with each other in front by 
cartilages, instead of being 




Fig. 50.— The Thorax. 



joined to the sternum. 

The ribs increase in length from the first to the eighth, and 
then diminish to the twelfth. In breadth they diminish from 
the first to the tenth. The first is horizontal, the rest oblique, 
the sternal end falling considerably below the vertebral end. 
The vertebral end of the rib is expanded into a head for articu- 
lation with two contiguous vertebrae. The two lower ribs are 
termed floating, and are much shorter than the others. The 
sternal ends of the ribs are cartilaginous, thus contributing 
mainly to the elasticity of the thorax ; in old age these costal 
cartilages are more or less ossified. The upper seven cartilages 
articulate with the sternum ; the eighth, ninth and tenth artic- 



What bones constitute the thorax ? 
How many ribs are there ? 



What are sternal ribs ? True ? False ? 



THE BODILY FRAMEWORK. 



51 



ulate with the lower border of the ones above: the eleventh 
and twelfth lie free between the abdominal muscles. Each rib 
articulates with two vertebrae posteriorly, and with one costal 
cartilage anteriorly, with the exception of the first, tenth, elev- 
enth and twelfth, which are each articulated with a single 
vertebra. 

BOXES OF THE PELVIS. 

The pelvis is composed of the two bones (ossa innominate) 
which form its sides and front, and the sacrum and coccyx 
behind. Anatomists distinguish the pelvis into the true and 
the false. The true pelvis is the portion beneath the linea Uio 
pectinea (A\ l\ Fig. 51), which forms the margin or brim of the 
proper pelvic 
cavity. The false 
pelvis is the part 
immediately a- 
bove, and is real- 
ly the lower part 
of the cavity of 
the abdomen. 

Fig. 51 is a front view 
of the pelvis. 1. 
The last lumbar 
vertebra. 2 2. The 
intervertebral sub- 
stance connecting 
the last lumbar ver- 
tebra with the one 
above, and with the 
sacrum below. 3. 
Promontory of the 

sacrum. 4. Anterior surface of the sacrum, on v>hich the transverse lines and 
foramina are sceu. 5. Lower point of the coccyx. 6,6. The iliac fossa?, forming 
the lateral boundaries of, the false pelvis, 7. Anterior superior spinous process 
of the ilium— left side. 8. Anterior inferior spinous process. 9. The acetabulum. 
a. The notch of the acetabulum, b. Body of the ischium, c. Its tuberosity, d. 
The spine of the ischium seen throuirh the obturator foramen, e. Os pubis, /. 
Symphisis pubis, g. Arch of the pubis, h. Anirle of the os pubis, i. Spine of 
the pubis: the prominent ridsre between h and i is the crest of the pubis, k. k. 
Pectineal line of the pubis. /, /. The ilio pectineal line; rn. m. its prolongation to 
the promontory Of the sacrum. The brim of the true pelvis is represented by the 
line h. i. k\ k. I. I. 7/1. m. n. The ilio-piTtineal eminence, o. The smooth surface 
which supports the ;'■ p. ]>. The gr it IschiAtk notch. 




Fig. 51.— The Pelvis. 



What bones constitute t! ■ What is the true pelvis ? False? What 

is the brim of the pelvis? 



52 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



In relation to the trunk of the body the pelvis is situated 
obliquely, the inner surface of the pubic bones being directed 
upward to support the superincumbent weight of the abdom- 
inal viscera. Its cavity measures, in depth, four and a half 
inches posteriorly, and one and a half inch at the symphisis 
pubis. 

Each os innominatum is distinguished anatomically into three 
distinct portions, termed os ilium, os ischium, and os pubis. In 
the young person these portions constitute separate bones. 

The ilium is the upper expanded portion of the pelvis forming 
the prominence of the hip, and articulating with the sacrum. 
The ischium is the lower strong part on which the body rests 
in sitting. The pubis forms the front part of the pelvis. 

The acetabulum is a deep cavity, at the j unction of the ilium, 
ischium and pubis, for receiving the head of the thigh bone. 
Between the ischium and the pubis is a large oval opening, 
termed obturator foramen; it is covered with a ligamentous 
membrane. A groove in the upper part lodges the obturator 
vessels and nerves. 

BONES OF THE HEAD. 

The bones of the head, constituting the skull, are divided 
into those of the cranium and those of the face. The cranial 
bones are eight and the facial fourteen in number : 



Occipital, 
Sphenoid, 



CRANIAL BONES. 

Two Temporal, 
Frontal, 



Two Parietal, 
Ethmoid. 



Two Nasal, 
Two Inferior Tur- 
binated, 
Inferior Maxillary. 



FACIAL BONES. 

Two Palate, 
Two Lachrymal, 
Vomer, 



Two Superior Max- 
illary, 
Two Malar, 



Like all flat bones, those of the cranium are composed of 
two plates or tables, and an intervening cellular net-work, termed 
diploe, which contains an oily, medullary substance. This struc- 



How many bones of the head ? 
composed? 



Cranial? Facial? Of what are flat bores 



THE BODILY FRAMEWORK. 



53 



ture is much better calculated to protect the brain against the 
effects of falls, blows, and shocks of all kinds than a more 
solid structure would be. 

The Occipital bone forms the base and back part of the cra- 
nium. Its external surface is marked by two transverse ridges. 
In its lower portion is a large opening, termed foramen magnum, 
through which the spinal cord is connected with the brain. On 
each side of the foramen magnum are processes termed con- 
dyles, for articulating the os occipitis with the atlas. Its inter- 
nal surface is divided by a crucial ridge into four depressions, 
termed fossae. In the upper depressions are situated the pos- 
terior lobes of the cerebrum, and in the lower ones the lateral 
lobes of the cerebellum. In front of the foramen magnum is a 




Fig. 52.— Bones op the Head. 

Fig. 52 represents a front and side view of the bones of the head. A. Frontal bone. 
BB. Parietal. CC. Temporal. D D. Sphenoid. E E. Malar. F F. Superior max- 
illary. Q O. Inferior maxillary. H. Occipital. I. Nasal, a a. Mastoid process of 
the temporal bone. 

projection termed the basilar process, on which rests the medulla 
oblongata. 

The Pa r'ut al bom g arc situated at the side and vertex of the 
skull, and are connected with each other by a straight suture, 
termed sagittal. Kadi is quadrilateral in form, and on tin* ex- 
ternal surface of each is an arched line, termed the temporal 



What part of the deal] doCfl the occipital boil*- form? What vertebra is it 

articulated with t Where are the parietal bones situated F 



54 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

ridge. The internal surface is marked by numerous furrows 
and depressions, the former lodging arteries, and the latter 
corresponding with the convolutions of the brain. 

The Frontal bone forms the forehead and part of the roof 
of the nostrils and orbits of the eyes. Each lateral half of the 
bone projects forward, forming the frontal eminences. Below 
these points are the superciliary ridges, which support the eye- 
brows. On the orbital portions of the internal surface are 
fossaz, corresponding to the convolutions of the anterior lobes 
of the cerebrum. 

The Temporal bones are situated at the side and base of the 
skull, and are divided into squamous, mastoid, and petrous 
portions. The squamous portion is the thin semi-translucent 
part of the temple, and its inner surface *s irregularly depressed 
by the convolutions of the cerebrum. A long arched process 
extends from its external surface, termed the zygoma. The 
mastoid portion forms the back part of the bone. In front of 
it is the meatus auditorius externus, or external ear passage, 
and its interior is arranged into numerous cells, which belong 
to the organ of hearing. The petrous portion is hard and 
dense; and near the middle of its posterior surface is the 
meatus auditorius internus. The basilar surface forms a part of 
the under surface of the base of the skull. The condyle of the 
lower jaw is articulated to a smooth fossa in this bone, termed 
glenoid. At the inner angle of this fossa is the foramen of the 
Eustachian tube, which connects the cavity of the internal ear 
with the throat. Deafness is frequently owing to the obstruc- 
tion of this tube. 

The Sphenoid bone is situated at the base of the skull, and 
assists in the formation of the cranium and face. It is named 
from its resemblance to a bat with its wings extended. 

The Ethmoid bone (sieve-like) is a small, square, thin bone be- 
tween the orbits at the root of the nose. It is perforated with 
numerous openings. A thin curled plate of its internal surface 
is called the superior turbinated bone, and below another thin 
plate outward, forming the middle turbinated bone. Between 
these is a narrow fissure, the upper meatus of the nose. The 



What does the frontal Done form ? Temporal bones ? Where is the sphe- 
noid situated ? Ethmoid ? 



THE BODILY FRAMEWORK. 55 

turbinated or spongy bones are the usual seat of polypous 
tumors. 

The Nasal bones (of The nose) are small quadrangular pieces, 
forming the bridge of the nose. 

The Superior Maxillary bones form the upper jaw, and assist 
in the formation of the orbit, nose, cheek, and palate. The 
interior of each is hollow, forming the antrum. Its lower por- 
tion presents the alveolar processes for containing the upper 
teeth. 

The Lachrymal bones are thin oval plates at the anterior and 
inner angles of the orbits of the eyes. 

The Malar bones are quadrangular pieces forming the promi- 
nence of the cheek. 

The Pahit> bones enter into the formation of the palate, side 
of the nose, and back part of the floor of the orbit. 

The ////' rior Turbinated bones are light, spongy, curved bones 
projrerini: inward toward the septum narium, or partition of 
the 11 

The Vomer is a thin quadrilateral piece, forming the back and 
lower part of the septum of 
the i! 

The Inferior Maxillary bone 
is the lower jaw. It is an arch 
of bone containing the under 
teeth. 

The different parts of the lower jaw are 

represented in Pig. 53. 1. Body. 2. 

iWB. 0. Symphfot*. 4. Fo>sa for 

the dcpre^inir muscle of the lower 

jaw. ."). Mental foramen. 6. Extcr- 

bUqne ridges. 7. r; r <>ove for the 

3. Angle, u. Extra* Fig. 53.-Lower Jaw. 

f milo-hyoHoan ridge. 10. C'oro- 

■ofd pn ceee. 11 . f . adj lea which articulate with the jrlenoid cavity of the temporal 

old notch. i& Inferior dental foramen. 14. MiJo-hyoidean groove. 

SUTURBS OF THE SKULL. 

The principal suture* (seams) of the skull are the coronal, 

Whai Superior maxillary! Lachrjmalf Malar? 

>r turbinated! Corner! Inferior maxillary ! 




56 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



which extends transversely across the crown, uniting the frontal 




Fig. 54.— Front View op the Skull. 



Fig. 54 exhibits several minute peculiarities 
of structure not described in the text. 1. 
The frontal portion of the frontal bone. 
2. Nasal tuberosity. 3. Supra-orbital ridge. 
4. Optic forameu. 5. A fissure, called sphe- 
noidal. 6. Another fissure, called spheno- 
maxUlary. 7. The lachrymal fossa. 8. 
Opening of the anterior nares, the yomer 
in the centre, on which the figure is placed. 
9. Infra-orbital foramen. 10. Malar bone. 
11. Symphisis, or point of union of the 
lower jaw. 12. Mental foramen. 13. Ra- 
mus of the lower jaw. 14. Parietal bone. 
15. Coronal suture. 16 Temporal bone. 17. 
Squamous suture. 18. Upper part, or great- 
er wiugs, of sphenoid bone. 19. Com- 
mencement of temporal ridge. 20. Zygoma 
of temporal bone, forming, with the malar, 
the z}'gomatic arch, under which is the 
zygomatic fossa. 21. The mastoid process. 



Fig. 55 represents the cerebral surface of 
the bas*e of the skull. 1. One side of the 
anterior fossa. 2. Lesser wing of the 
sphenoid. 3. Crista galli. 4. Foramen 
caecum. 5. Cribriform lamella of the eth- 
moid. 6. The process called olivary. 7. 
Foramen opticum. 8. Anterior clinoid 
process. 9. The carotid groove on the 
side of the sella turcica, for the internal 
carotid artery and cavernous sinus. 10, 
11, 12. Middle fossa of the base of the 
skull; 10 marks the great ala of the sphe- 
noid ; 11, the squamous portion of the 
temporal bone; 12, the petrous portion. 
13. The sella turcica. 14. Basilar portion 
of sphenoid and occipital bones. The 
uneven ridge between 13 and 14 is called 
dorsum ephippii, arid the prominent an- 
gles of the ridge constitute the posterior 
clinoid processes. 15. Foramen rotun- 
dum. 16. Foramen ovale. 17. Foramen 
spinosum; a small opening between 17 
and 12 is called hiatus fallojni. 18. Posterior fos*a of the base of the skull. 19, 
19. The groove for the lateral sinus. 20. The ridge upon the occipital bone, to 
which the falx cerebeMi is attached. 21. Foramen magnum. 22. Meatus auditorius 
internus. 23. Jugular foramen. 




Fig. 55.— Inner Base of the Skull. 



What are the principal sutures of the skull ? 
suture ? 



What is the meaning of 



THE BODILY FRAMEWORK. 



57 



and parietal bones ; the sagittal, which unites the two parietal 
bones, and forms the longitudinal seam along the vertex; the 
lambdoidal, which connects the occipital and parietal bones, 
and the squamous, which unites the squamous portion of the 
temporal bone with the parietal and sphenoid. 

ORBITS OF THE EYE. 

These are hollow cones for the lodgment of the eyeballs and 
their muscles, vessels, nerves, and lachrymal glands. Com- 
municating with the orbit are nine openings for the transmission 
of arteries, veins and nerves. The frontal, ethmoid, malar, su- 
perior maxillary, palate, and lachrymal bones contribute to the 
formation of the orbits. 

THE NASAIi CAVITIES. 

Each nasal cavity is divided into three irregular longitudinal 
passages, termed meatuses, by three projecting processes of bone 
from the outer wall. These projections constitute the superior, 
middle, and inferior turbinated bones. The lower meatus is 
much the largest. 

THE TEETH. 

Human beings are provided with two sets of teeth, deciduous 
and permanent. The deciduous teeth (milk teeth) are those of 

childhood, and are 
twenty in number; 
eight incisor, or cut- 
ting, four canine, 
and eight molars, or 
grinding teeth. 

In Fig. 56 are shown the dif- 
ferent kinds of tempo- 
rary teeth, a. Central in- 
cisor, b. Lateral incisor. 
c. Canine, d. First mo- 
lar, e. Second molar. 

Pro. .v;.— Temporary Teeth. 
The permanent teeth are thirty -two, sixteen in each jaw. 

What are orbit* of the eye? How are the nasal eaviti.'s divided? How 
many deciduous teeth ? Permanent ! 

3* 




58 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



Each lateral half of each jaw, reckoning from the centre, con- 

a b c d e f g h 




d e f g 

Fig. 57.— Permanent Teeth. 
In Fig. 57, a is the central incisor, b. Lateral incisor, c. Cuspid, or canine, d. 
First bicuspid, e. Second bicuspid. /. First molar, g. Second molar, h. Third 
molar. 

tains two incisors, one canine, or eye-tooth, two bicuspids, or 
small double, and three molars, as represented in Fig. 57. 




Fig. 58.— Infant Teeth and Rudiments of the Permanent. 



How many kinds of teeth are there ? What number of each ? 



THE BODILY FRAMEWORK. 



59 



Each tooth is composed of a firm external crust, termed 
enamd ; the proper bone of the teeth, termed the ivory, and a 
cortical Btibstance, termed cementum, which forms a thin coat- 
ing over the rest of the tooth. Its structure is similar to that 
of bone, and exhibits cells and tubuli. 

In Fig. 5S are seen the number, arrangement, and nervous 
connections of a complete set of deciduous teeth, with the rudi- 
ments of the permanent teeth, as they appear at four years 
of age. 

PERIODS OF DENTITION. 

The first set of teeth usually appear in the following order, 
the teeth of the lower jaw generally preceding those of the 
upper. In the seventh month the two middle incisors; in the 
\th the two lateral incisors; in the twelfth the first molars; 
in the eighteenth the canine; and in the twenty -fourth the last 
two molars. 

The order of the second set of teeth is: 



First molars, at 6| years. 
Two middle incisors, 7th year. 
Two lateral incisors, 8th year. 
First bicuspids, 9th year. 



Second bicuspids, 10th year. 
Canine, 11th to 12th year. 
Second molars, 12th to 13th year. 
Last molars, 18th to 21st year. 



The last molar or grinding tooth occasionally does not appear 
until twenty or thirty years of age, or even later, from which 
circumstance it is termed tho wisdom tooth — dens sapiente. 



BOXE OF THE TONGUE. 

The hyoid or tongue bone (0.9 hyoides) is situated at tho base 
of the tongue, supporting it and the 
upper part of the larynx. 

■ front view of the hone of the tongue. 1. 
. or ant. to -uperior sirle. '2. Greater 
cornua of the left -i r cornua. 

In early life the cornua and body are 
connected by ligaments and cartilages, 
which in old age become ossified. 




Fia. 59.— Os Hyoides. 



rnwh.it oider do the deciduous teeth appear? The permanent? 

the last molar called ? Situation and use of the hyoid bone ? 



What la 



60 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES. 

Each upper extremity comprises : 
The Clavicle, — collar bone, 
The Scapula, — shoulder blade . 
The Humerus, — arm bone. 
The Radius and Ulna, — Two arm bones 
The Carpus, — wrist bones . 
The Metacarpus, — hand bones . 
The Phalanges, — finger bones . 



1 
1 
1 

2 

8 

5 

U 



BONES OF THE SHOULDER. 

The Clavicle extends across the upper side of the chest, con- 
necting the upper end of the sternum with the shoulder, being 
articulated with the clavicle. 

The Scapula is a flat triangular bone, occupying the space 
from the second to the seventh rib, upon the posterior aspect 
and side of the thorax. The thick anterior angle of the 
bone is called its head; and in this head is a shallow articu- 
lating surface called the glenoid cavity, which receives the head 
of the humerus. Above the glenoid cavity is a projection 
termed the acromion, on the outer border of which is an oval 
articular surface for the clavicle. 

BONES OF THE ARM. 

The Humerus consists of a long cylindrical shaft, and two 
extremities. The upper end is articulated with the scapula, 
and the lower, which is divided into two articular surfaces, is 
articular with the two lines of the fore-arm. 

The Ulna and Radius are articulated with the humerus 
above, and the carpal bones below. The ulna is the more slen- 
der bone. Its upper end forms the principal articulation of 
the elbow. Its lower extremity terminates in a small round 
head, to the inner side of which the radius is articulated. The 
radius is the rotary bone of the fore-arm, and by turning on the 



What T)ones does the upper extremity comprise: 
bones ? What are the bones of the arm ? 



What are the shoulder 



THE BODILY I ORK. 



61 



Fig. 60. 



W 8 



M 



The Humerus. 



_ * is ■ front view of the humerus of the Fig. 61. 

ridit arm. 1. Shaft. & Head. 3. Neck. 

4. Greater tuberosity. .'.. L9saei tul 

6. Bicipital groove, 7. v . Bicipita 

Bough surface for the attachment of the 

deltoid muscle. 10. A foramen for nutrient 

la. 11. Eminentia capitata, IS. Tro- 
chlea. 13. External condyle. 14. Internal 
condyle. 15. 16. Condyloid ridges. 17. Fos- 

l receiving the coracoid process of the 
ulna. 

ulna at the wrist, enables the 
hand to perform the motions of 
pronation and supination. 

Fig. 61 is a front view of the ulna and radius. 

I. Shaft of Ulna. & Greater sigmoid notch. 
3. Lesser sigmoid notch. 4. Olecranon pro- 

5. Coracoid proce-s. 6. Nutritive for 
amen. 7. Ridges to which the interosseous 
membrane is attached. BL Capitulum ulna?. 
9. Styloid process. 10. Shaft of radius. 

II. Its head. 12. Its neck. 18. Its tuberos- 
ity. 14. The oblique line. 15. Lower ex- 
tremity. 16. Its styloid process. Ulxa axd Radius 

BOXES OF THE WRIST. 




The eight bones of the wrist are 
arranged in two rows, constituting 
the I They are all seen in 

Fi_\ 62, which represents the outside 
of the right hand. 

1. Lower end of the radius. 2. Lower end of the 
ulna. 3. Interarticular cartilages, a tt a ched to 
the styloid process of the ulna, and to the mar- 
gin of the articular surface of the radius. S. 
The scaphoid. L. Semilunar. C. Cuneiform. 
P. Piriform. T. Trapezium. T. Trapezoides, 
# M. Os magnum. V. Unciform. 

BOXES OF THE HAX'D. 8 

Tli a divisible into the five 

long hand bon« ititating the 




The CabpuI. 



t the wrist f How man j bonce constitute the 

caq.us } What are their nam 



62 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



Metacarpus, and the fourteen bones of the fingers and thumb, 

termed Phalanges, 



BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY. 

The lower extremity comprises : 

The Femur, — thigh bone, . . 1 

The Patella, — knee bone, . . 1 

The Tibia and Fibula, — leg bones. 2 

The Tarsus, — ankle bones, . . 7 

The Metatarsus, — foot bones, . 5 




The Phalanges, — toe bones, . .14 



Fig. 63.— Metacarpus and 
Phalanges. 



Fig. 63 represents the aspect Fig. 64. 

of the bones of the hand 
anteriorly. 1. The scaphoid 
bone. 2. Semilunar. 8. 
Cuneiform. 4. Pisiform. 
5. Trapezium. 6. A groove 
in the trapezium which 
lodges the tendon of the 
flexor carpi radialis muscle. 
7. Trapezoides. 8. Os Mag- 
num. 9. Unciform. 10, 10. The metacarpal bones. 11, 11. 
First row of phalanges. 12, 12. Second row. 13, 13. Third 
row. 14. First phalanx of the thumb. 15. second do. 

BONES OF THE THIGH AND LEG. 

The Femur is the longest bone in the body. 
Its different parts are seen in Fig. 64, which is 
a representation of the right femur as seen an- 
teriorly. 

1. The shaft. 2. Head. 3. Neck. 4. Great trochanter. 5. An- 
terior intertrochanteric line. 6. Lesser trochanter. 7. Ex- 
ternal condyle 8. Internal condyle. 9. The tuberosity to 
which the external lateral ligament is attached. 10. The 
fossa for the tendon of the origin of the popliteal muscle. 
11. The tuberosity for the internal lateral ligament. 

The Patella (knee-pan) is one of the sesa- 
moid bones, being developed in the tendon of 
the quadriceps extensor muscle. It is articu- 
lated with the condyles of the femur. Os Femoris. 




What constitutes the metacarpus ? 
knee-pan ? 



What the phalanges ? The thigh? The 



THE B0DIL5T FRAMEWORK. 



63 



The Tibia and Fibula connect the thigh bone with the ankle. 
The tibia is the inner, and larger. The different 

Fig. 65. ° 

parts of each are represented in Pig. 65, which 

is a front view as they are articulated with each 
other. 

Fig. 65.— 1. Shaft of tibia. 2. Inner tuber 
osity. 3. Outer tuberosity, I. spinous 
process. 5. The tubercle. 6. Internal 
or subcutaneous surface of the shaft. 
T. Lower extremity of the tibia. 8. In- 
ternal malleolus. 9. Shaft of the fib- 
ula. 10. Its upper extremity. 11. Its 
lower extremity, termed externa malle- 
olus, the internal surface of which is 
articulated with the astragalus. 

BOXES OF THE AXKLE AND 
FOOT. 

The arrangement of all the 
tarsal, metatarsal, and phalan- 
geal bones of the lower extrem- 
ity is shown in Fig. 66, which 
is a representation of the tar- 
sal surface of the left foot. 

Fig. 66.— 1. Astragalus, its superior quad- 
rilateral articular surface. 2. The ante- 
rior extremity of the astragalus, which 
articulates with the scaphoid. 3. Os calcis. 4. Scaphoid. 
5. Internal cuneiform. 6. Middle cuneiform. 7. External 

cuneiform. S. Cuboid. 9. Metatarsal bones of the first and second toes. lOt 
First phalanx of the great toe. 11. Second do. 12. First phalanx of second toe. 
ML Second do. 14 Third do. 

Into the calcaneous or heel bone " os calcis), the tendo a chil- 
lis, or strong tendon of the heel is inserted. It is sometimes 
ruptured in jumping and other violent exercises. 

SESAMOID BOXES. 

Thee mall Ofiseoufl masses, formed in tendons, which 

serve to protect neighboring parts from injurious friction. They 

constitute a sort of rmlley for the tendons to play upon. The 




Tibia and Febttla 




Bones op the Foot. 



What are the leg bones \ What bones constitute the foot f What are sesa- 
moid bones ? 



64 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

patella is a sesamoid bone. Besides this there are four pairs 
properly belonging to the skeleton, two of which are situated 
on the metacarpophalangeal articulation of each thumb, and 
two upon the corresponding joint of the great toe. These bones 
are occasionally found on other joints. The bones of the ear 
are sesamoid. 



What kind of a bone is the patella ? How many sesamoid bones belong to 
the skeleton ? Where are they situated ? 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE LIGAMENTS — SYXDESMOLOGY. 

The connection between any two bones constitutes a joint, or 
articulation. In movable joints the opposing surfaces are coat- 
ed by an elastic substance, called cartilage ; this is lubricated 
by a fluid, called synovia, secreted by an enclosing membrane, 
called synovial; while the bones are firmly held together by 
bands of glistening fibres, called ligaments. 

The forms of articulation are divided into three classes. 1. 

*, or fixed joint, as in the skull, upper jaw, vomer, 

and teeth. 2. Diarthrosi8 } or movable, the shoulder, hip, elbow, 

wrist, knee, ankle, carpus, and tarsus. 3. Amphi-arthrosttSj or 

intermediate, as in the bodies of the vertebra?. 

The motions of joints are of four kinds. 1. Gliding, the slid- 
ing motion of one articular surface upon another. It exists, to 
some extent, in all joints, and is the only motion in the carpus 
and tarsus. 2. Angular, which may be forward, called flexion ; 
backward, called extension; inward, called adduction; or out- 
ward, called abduction. Flexion and extension are illustrated 
in the knee and elbow, and, more or less, in most other joints; 
adduction and abduction are seen complete in the shoulder, 
hip. and thumb. 3. Circumduction, which consists in a slight 
motion of the head of a bone, while the extremity is made to 
scribe a large circle, as in the hip and shoulder. 4. Rotation, 
the movement of a bone on its own axis, as with the radius, 
the atlas upon the' axis, and in the hip and shoulder. 

The es in tie' formation of a joint, in addition to the 

\re eartilage, fibrous tissue, adipose tissue, and synovial 

The ca rtUagt of Joints serves not only to connect different 
bones, but Eurating medium. It forms a thin coal 



What constitutes a joint? Whal Is Wh.it 

are the forms of Jot 



66 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

ing to the articular surface, and has been classed into true, reti- 
cular, and fibrous. 

Fibrous tissue about the joints exists in the form of ligament, 
sometimes constituting bands of various breadth and thick- 
ness, and sometimes layers, which extend around the joints; 
these are called capsular ligaments. 

Adipose tissue is found in greater or less quantities about 
joints, where it serves to fill up vacant spaces, and probably 
increase their elasticity. 

Synovial membrane is the smooth, polished lining of a joint 
which secretes the synovia, and enables opposing surfaces to 
move upon each other with the most perfect ease and freedom. 




Fig. 67.— Fibrous Cartilage. 

In Fig. 67 is seen a portion of fibrous cartilage, largely magnified. Its development 
has already been described; the different kinds of cartilaginpus structure are ow- 
ing to subsequent changes in the cells and intercellular substance. 

PARTICULAR ARTICULATIONS. 

The connecting media of joints are generally named from 
some prominent circumstance in relation to form, position, 
points of connection, etc., as capsular, surrounding: transverse, 
running across; occipito-axoid, attached to and holding to- 
gether the occipital and axis bones; lateral, connecting the 
sides of articulating bones, etc.; hence, except with the most 
important ligaments, the name will be a sufficient description. 

The Vertebral Joints, — The vertebrae are held together by 
the following ligaments: 1. Intervertebral substance, a disc of 
fibrous cartilage interposed between the bodies of all the verte- 
brae. This varies in thickness in different parts of the column, 

What is the use of cartilage? Where is adipose tissue found? What is 
synovial membrane ? 



THE LIGAMEXTS-SYNDESMOLOGY. 



67 



which circumstance contributes much to the formation of the 
vertebral curves. 2. Anterior common ligament \ a broad, thin 
band of fibres attached to the bodies of the vertebrae in front, 
and extending along the whole column from the neck to the 
rum. 3. Posterior common ligament, attached to the bodies 
behind in a similar manner. -1. Ligamenta subflara, two thin 
plates of yellow fibrous tissue, situated between the arches. 5. 
Capsular ligaments, loose synovial membranes surrounding the 
articular processes. 6. Inter-spinous ligaments, thin membra- 
nous bands extended between the spinous processes in the 
dorsal and lumbar regions. 7. Supraspinous I igament, a strong, 
inelastic fibrous cord, extending from the apex of the spinous 
process of the last cervical vertebra to the sacrum, being at- 
tached in its course to each spi- 
nous process. 8. Inter -trans- 
;"nt(nts. connecting on- 
ly the transverse processes of 
the lower dorsal vertebrae. 

The connection of the anterior ligaments 
and those of the ribs is seen in Fig. 68. 
1. Anterior common ligament. 2. An- 
terior costo-vertebral ligament. 3. An- 
terior costotransverse ligament. 4. FlG - 68.— Vertebral Ligaments. 
Interarticular ligament connecting the head of the rib to the intervertebral sub- 
stance, and separating the two synovial membranes of this articulation. 




The Xeck JbnfT. — There are seven ligaments connecting the 
atlas with the os occipitis: Two anterior ligaments, one of which 
La a rounded cord, attached above to the base of the occipital, 
and below to the anterior tubercle of the atlas; the other is a 
broad membranous layer, lying deeper, attached to the margin 
of the occipital foramen above, and to the whole length of the 
anterior arch of the atlas below; a posterior ligament, thin and 
membranous, attached above to the margin of the occipital for- 
amen, and below to the posterior arch of the atlas; two lateral 
lig> strong fascicula of fibres, attached below to the base 

of the transverse process of the atlas, at each side and above to 
the trai of the occipital bone; two capsular lig- 



WhfttHgam« rtebrael What ligaments are concerned In 

neck joint F 



68 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



aments, thin ligamentous capsules surrounding the synovial 
membranes of the articulation, between the condyles of the oc- 
cipital bone and the superior articular processes of the atlas. 
The motions between the cranium and atlas are flexion and 
extension. 

The axis is articulated with the occipital bone by three liga- 
ments — the occipito-axoid, sl broad band covering the odontoid 
process and its ligaments, and two odontoid, short, thick fibrous 
fasciculi, which pass outward from the apex of the odontoid 
process to the sides of the occipital foramen and condyles. 
These ligaments are called check ligaments, because they limit 
the rotatory movements of the head. 

The atlas is articulated with the axis by five ligaments. The 
anterior consists of ligamentous fibres, passing from the ante- 
rior tubercle and arch of the atlas to the base of the odontoid 
process and body of the axis. The posterior is a thin membra- 
nous layer, which passes between the posterior arch of the atlas 
and the laminae of the axis. The two capsular loosely surround 
the articular processes of the atlas and axis, and permit great 
freedom of movement. The transverse is a strong band, arch- 
ing across the area of the ring of the atlas, from one articular 
process to the other. It retains the odontoid process of the axis 
in connection with the anterior arch of the atlas. Where 
it crosses the odontoid process, some fibres pass downward to 
be attached to the body of the axis, and others are sent upward 
to the basilar process of the occipital bone. This disposition 

Fig 69 is a posterior view of the ligaments 
connecting the atlas, axis and occipitis. 
The back part of the occipitis and the 
arches of the atlas and axis have been re- 
moved. 1. The superior part of the occi- 
pito-axoid ligament, which has been cut 
away to show the ligaments beneath. 2. 
Transverse ligament of the atlas. 3, 4. As- 
cending and descending slips of the trans- 
verse ligament, which have given to it the 
title of cruciform. 5. One of the odontoid 
ligaments; the other is seen on the oppo- 
site side. 6. One of tjie occipito-atloid cap- 
sular ligaments. 7. One of the atlo-axoid capsular ligaments. 




Fig. 69.— Neck Joint Posteriorly. 



What ligaments connect the axis and occipitis ? 
articulated ? 



How are the atlas and axis 



THE LIGAMENTS— SYNDESMOLOGY. 



69 



enables the atlas, and with it the whole head, to rotate upon 
the axis, its extent of rotation being limited by the odontoid 
ligaments. 

Joints of the Lower Jaw. — These are formed by the exter- 
nal lateral ligaments, short, thick bands of fibres extending 
obliquely backward from the zygomas to the external surface 
of the necks of the lower jaw; the capsular ligament, consisting 
of a few irregular fibres passing from the edges of the glenoid 
cavities to the necks; the inter-articular fibrous cartilages, thin, 
oval plates, thicker at the edges than in the centre, placed hori. 
zontally between the heads of the condyles and the glenoid 
cavities, thus dividing each joint into an upper and a lower 
cavity; and the synovial membranes, one situated above and 
one below the cartilages. 




Fig. 70. 



Joints of the Lower Jaw. 



Fig. 71. 



Fig. TO is an external view of this articulation. I. The zygomatic arch, 2. Tubercle 
of the zygoma. 3. Ramus of the lower jaw. 4. Mastoid portion of the temporal 
bone. 5. External lateral ligament. 6. Stylo-maxillary ligament. 

Fig. 71 is an internal view. 1. A section through the petrous portion of the temporal 
bone, and spinous process of the sphenoid. 2. An internal view of the ramus 
*and part of the body of the lower jaw. 3. Internal portion of the capsular liga- 
ment. 4. Internal lateral ligament. 5. A small opening at its insertion, where 
the milo-hyoidean nerve passes. 6. Stylo-maxillary ligament. 

The movements of the lower jaw are depression and elevation, 
by which the mouth is opened and shut; also a forward, back" 
march and lateral movement from side to side, constituting the 
grinding motion. 

Thk Costo-Vjbbtkbkal Joints. — The ribs have a double ar- 



Whst ligaments form tin: Joint of the Lower jaw? What ire the movement! 

of the lower jaw } 



70 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 




ticular connection with the vertebrae. 1. By ligaments connec- 
ting the head of the rib with the bodies of the vertebrce. 2. 
Those connecting the neck and tubercle of the rib with the trans- 
verse processes of the vertebrae. This arrangement renders dis- 
location impossible, as the neck of the rib would break before 
dislocation could occur. In addition, most of these costover- 
tebral articulations have a capsular, 
interarticular, and three transverse lig- 
aments, named, from their positions 
anterior, middle, and posterior costo- 
transverse ligaments. 

Fig 72 is a posterior view of a part of the thoracic 
portion of the vertebral column, showing the liga- 
ments connecting the vertebrae with each other, 
and the ribs with the vertebrae. 1, 1. The supra- 
spinous ligament. 2, 2. Ligamenta Fubflava, con- 
necting the laminae. 3. Anterior costo-transverse 
ligament. 4. Posterior costo-transverse ligaments. 

The movement of these articula- 
tions are upward and downward, and 
slightly backward and forward, all 
the movements increasing from the head to the anterior ex- 
tremity of the rib. 

Costo-Sternal Joints. — In front the ribs are articulated 
with the sternum, and some of them with each other. The 
ligamentous connections are the anterior, posterior, superior, 
and inferior costo-sternal, and the synovial membranes. The 
sixth, seventh, eighth, and sometimes the fifth and ninth costal 
cartilages have a perfect synovial membrane, and articulate 
with each other. 

The motions of these articulations are limited to a slight slid- 
ing movement. 

Joints of the Sternum. — The pieces of this bone are con- 
nected by a thin plate of interosseous ligament, and anterior 
and posterior sternal ligaments, which contribute very much to 
its strength, and to the elasticity of the front of the chest. 

YERTEBRO-PEiiVic Joint. — The last lumbar vertebrae and 
the sacrum are connected by the same general ligaments as are 



Fig. 72. — Costo-Vertebral 
Joints. 



What ligaments connect the ribs and vertebrae ? Ribs and Sternum ? Joints 
of the Sternum ? 



THE LIGAMENTS— SYXDE3M0L0GY. 71 

the vertebra with each other ; in addition to which there are 
two proper ligaments, called lumbosacral and lumbo-Uiae. 

Joints of the Pelvis.^ There are lour articulations of the 
pelvic bones. L. / . the connection of which is formed 

by;: tor and posterior sacro-Uiac ligament. The latter is 

also called ink i it is composed of strong fibres passing 

horizontally between the rough surfaces of the sac ro-i liar artic- 
ulations. 2. Saero^ischiatic, the union of the sacrum and ischi- 
um, formed by the anterior and posterior sacro-ischiatic Uga- 
mt fits. The upper border of the anterior forms part of the 
boundary of the great sacro-ischiatic foramen; and its lower 
border a part of the h sst r sacro-'isch iatic foramen. The superior 
border of the posterior forms also a part of the lesser saero- 
ischiatic foramen, and its lower border a part of the boundary 
of the perineum. The two ligaments convert the sacro-ischiatic 
notches into foramina. 

ygeax Joint. — Between the sacrum and coccyx 
is a soft fibrous cartilage. The bones are held together also by 
the anterior and posterior sacro-coccygean ligaments. This artic- 
ulation admits of a backward motion during parturition. 

Pubic Joint. — The ossa pubis are connected together by an 
int' % cartilage, the anterior , posterior, superior and sub- 

pubic ligaments, which variously cross the symphisis, or place 
of union. The articulation becomes movable during parturi- 
tion, and admits of a slight separation of the bones. 

The numerous vacuities in the walls of the pelvis, and their 
closure by ligamentous structures, diminish materially the pres- 
sure on the soft parts during the passage of the head of the 
feet us. 

Note. — The obturator ligament or membrane is a tendo-fibrous 
expansion stretched across the obturator foramen. It is not 
concerned in articulation, but gives attachment to the obtu- 
rator muscles, and leaves a space in the upper part of the fora- 
men for the passage of the obturator vessels and nerv 

CliAVICUIiAB JOINTS. — The breast and collar bones 

are connected by the anterior, posterior, aterno-clavictitfar, inter- 
clavicular, and oosto-clavicular ligaments, an inter-articular oar- 



What are tae pelvic joinl • PaWe! Sterno-clavicular f 



72 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



tilage, and two synovial membranes. The motions of this artic- 
ulation are gliding and circumduction. This joint is the centre 
of the movements of the shoulder. In dislocations of thes ter- 

nal end of the clavicle, the 
costo-clavicular ligament, call- 
ed also rhomboid, is ruptured, 
occasioning a peculiar defor- 
mity. 



Fig. 73 shows the ligaments of the ster- 
no-clavicular and costo-sternal articu- 
lations. 1. Anterior sterno-clavicular 
ligament. 2. Inter-clavicular ligament. 
3. Costo-clavicular. 4. Inter-articalar 
cartilage. 5. Anterior costo-sternal 
ligaments of the first and second 
ribs. 




Fig. 73.— Sterno-Clavicular Joint. 



Scapulo-Clavicular Joint. — The shoulder-blade and breast 
bone are connected by two synovial membranes, an inter-articu- 
lar cartilage, a superior acromioclavicular, an inferior acromio- 
clavicular, and a coraco-clavicular ligament. This articulation ad- 
mits of a gliding and rotatory movement. 

Note. — The shoulder-blade has 
two ligaments, coraco-acromial and 
transverse, which are proper to itself. 
The first is a thick triangular band, 
forming a protecting arch over the 
shoulder joint. The second crosses 
the notch in its upper border, thus 
converting it into a foramen. 

The ligaments of the scapula and shoulder joint 
are seen in Fig. 74. 1. Superior acromioclavi- 
cular. 2. Coraco-clavicular. 3. Coraco-acro- 
mial. 4. Transverse. 5. Capsular. 6. Coraco- 
humeral. 7. The long tendon of the biceps 
muscle issuing from the capsular ligament, and 
entering the bicipital groove. 




Fig. 74.— Shoulder-Joint. 



The Shoulder- Joint. — The sca- 
pula and humerus form a ball-and- 



How are the scapula and Sternum connected ? What kind of a joint is that 
of the shoulder ? 



THE LIGAMENTS— STNDESMOLOGY. 



73 



Fig. 75. 



socket articulation; its ligaments are the capsular, coraco-humeral, 
and glenoid. 

The capsular ligament encircles the heads of the scapula and 

humerus. The eoraoo-humeral is a broad band between the cora- 
coid process of the scapula and the greater tuberosity of the 
humerus. The glenoid is a cartilaginous band around the mar- 
gin of the glenoid cavity, which it deepens. 

The synovial membrane of this joint is very extensive, and 
the articulation admits of every kind of motion. 

The Elbow Joi^t. — At this articulation the 
humerus, ulna, and radius are connected by four 
ligaments in addition to its synovial membrane. 
They are the anterior, composed of fibres, which 
pass vertically, transversely, and obliquely, 
forming a broad membranous layer, between 
the anterior surface of the humerus and the cor- 
onoid process of the ulna and orbicular liga- 
ment ; the posti rior, a broad loose layer between 
the posterior surface of the humerus and the 
olecranon; the internal lateral, a thick triangular 
layer passing between the inner condyle of the 
humerus to the margin of the greater sigmoid 
cavity of the ulna; and the external lateral, a 
strong narrow band descending from the exter- 
nal condyle of the humerus to the orbicular lig- 
ament and ridge of the ulna. 

An internal view of the ligaments is seen in Fig. 75. 1. Anterior. 
i. Internal lateral. 3. Orbicular. 4. Oblique. 5. Inter-oescous. 
6. Internal condyle of the humerus, which conceals the poste- 
rior ligament. Elbow Joint In- 

TKIiNAI.!,Y. 

The motions of this articulation are flexion 
and extension, the former being limited by the coronoid process, 
and the latter by the olecranon. . 

Radio-UlnaB Joint.— The radius and ulna are held together 
by an inter-articular cartilage, the lower surface of which enters 
Into the articulation of the wrist; the orbicular ligament, which 
surrounds the head of the radius, and is attached ai each end 




formed P Whal are Ita motions? How u 
ed? 



n 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



Fig. 76. 



to the extremities of the lesser sigmoid cavity , 
the oblique ligament, a narrow slip between the 
coronoid process and the inner side of the radius ; 
the inter-osseous ligament, a broad aponeurosis be- 
tween the ridges of the radius and ulna; and the 
anterior inferior and posterior inferior ligaments. 
The orbicular ligament is necessarily ruptured 
in dislocations of the head of the radius. 

Fig. 76 is an external view of the elbow articulation. 1. Humer- 
us. 2. Ulna. 3. Radius. 4, External lateral ligament inserted 
below into the orbicular (5.) 6. The posterior extremity of 
the orbicular, spreading out at its insertion into the ulna. 7. 
Anterior ligament. 8. Posterior ligament. 



The lower part of the inter-osseous ligament is 
perforated for the passage of the anterior inter- 
osseous artery. The posterior inter-osseous ar- 
tery passes backward between the oblique liga- 
ment and the upper border of the inter-osseous 
ligament. This ligament affords an extensive 
surface for the attachment of muscles. 

The movements of this joint are, the rotation 
of the radius upon the ulna ; the forward rota- 
tion is called pronation, and the backward supination. The head 
of the radius also turns upon its own axis within the orbicular 
ligament and the lesser sigmoid notch of the ulna ; and inferi- 
orly a concavity in the radius moves on the rounded head of 
the ulna. 

The anterior and posterior inferior ligaments are chiefly con- 
cerned in limiting the movements of the radius, and hence, in 
great muscular efforts, are frequently ruptured. 

The Wrist Joint, — This articulation is formed by the anterior, 
posterior, internal lateral and external lateral ligaments, with the 
synovial membrane. Its motions are flexion, extension, adduction, 
abduction, and circumduction, in all of which movements the 
articular surfaces glide upon each other. The wrist joint is an 
example of the articulation called ginglymoid. The radial 




Elbow Joint 
Externally. 



What are the movements of the elbow joint ? How is the wrist joint formed ? 



THE LIGAMENTS— STNDESMOLOGT. 



75 



artery rests on the external lateral ligament as it passes back- 
ward to the first metacarpal space. 

The ligaments of the wrist and hand are seen anteri- 
orly in Fig. 77. 1. Interosseous membrane. 2, 
Anterior inferior radio-ulnar ligament. 3. Anterior 
ligament of ihe wrist. 4. Its external lateral. 5. 
Its internal lateral. 6. Palmar ligaments of the 
carpus. 7. Pisiform bone, with its ligaments. 8. 
Ligaments connecting second range of carpal bones 
with the* metacarpal, and these with each other. 

9. Capsular ligaments of the carpo-metacarpal ar- 
ticulation of the thumb. 10. Anterior ligament of 
the metacarpo - phalangeal articulation of the 
thumb. 11. One of the lateral ligaments of that 
articulation. V2. Anterior ligament of the meta- 
carpophalangeal articulation of the index finger. 
13. Lateral ligaments of the same joint; the cor- 

ndinir ligaments are seen in the other articu- 
lations. 14. Tran-verse ligament connecting the 
heads of the metacarpal bones of the index and 
middle fingers: the same ligament is seen between 
the other finders. 15. Anterior and one lateral lig- 
ament of the phalangeal articulation of the thumb. 

10. Anterior and lateral ligaments of the phalangeal 
articulations of the index finger; the anterior liga- 
ments are removed in the other fingers. 

Fig. 77.— Wiust Joint. 

The C arpax Joixts. — The carpal 
bones are connected by ligamentous bands, which pass trans- 
versely and longitudinally from bone to bone on the back, 
called dorsal ligaments ; by palmar ligaments, which have a 
similar disposition in front; by inter-osseous cartilages between 
the bones; and by a strong ligamentous band connecting the 
bones of the two sides, called anterior annular ligament. Five 
distinct synovial membranes enter into carpal articulations. 

Between the bones of each range there is a slight movement 
of flexion and extension. 

The Carpometacarpal Joixts. — The second row of carpal 
bones articulates with the metacarpal finger bones by dorsal 
and palmar ligaments; and the metacarpal of the thumb is 
ioined to the trapezium by a true' capsular ligament. The meta- 
carpal bonefl <>!' the four lingers are connected at their bases 




How an thecftipa] bonefl connected t What motions between them? How 
are carpo-rmtaearpnl j< .int.- fun: 



76 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



by dorsal, palmar and inter-osseous ligaments. The thumb, 
shoulder, and hip joints are the only ones in the body having 
true capsular ligaments. 

The movements of the carpo-metacarpal articulations are 
limited to a slight degree of sliding motion, except in the case 
of the metacarpal bone of the thumb with the trapezium, which 
has flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, and circumduction. 
Metacarpophalangeal Joints. — The metacarpal and fin- 
ger joints are united by anterior fibrocartilaginous ligaments, 
strong, narrow lateral ligaments, and strong ligamentous bands, 
called transverse ligaments. 

These articulations have the motions of flexion, extension, a 
limited adduction and abduction, and a slight degree of cir- 
cumduction. 

Phalangeal Joints. — The finger bones are connected by an 
anterior and two lateral ligaments. The extensor tendon per- 
forms the office of a posterior ligament, as with the preceding 
articulations. 
The movements are flexion and extension. 
The Hip Joint. — The head of the femur is received into the 

cup-shaped cavity of the aceta- 
bulum, forming a ball-and-sock- 
et joint. Its ligaments are the 
capsular, which embraces the 
acetabulum superiorly, and the 
neck of the femur inferiorly; 
the ilio- femoral, an accessory 
attachment to the anterior por- 
tion of the capsular; the liga- 

The ligaments of the pelvis and hip joint 
are partly shown in Fig. 78. 1. Lower 
part of the anterior common ligament 
of the vertebrae, extending downward 
over the front of the sacrum. 2. Lumbo- 
sacral. 3. Lumbo-iliac. 4. Anterior sa- 
cro-iliac. 5. Obturator membrane. 6, 
Poupart's ligament. 7. Gimbernat's. 8. 
Capsular. 9. Dio-femoral, or accessory. 




Fig. 78.— Pelvis and Hip Anteriorly. 



What joints have true capsular ligaments ? 
joints ? Phalangeal V 



What are metacarpophalangeal 



THE LIGAMENTS -SYNDESMOLOOY. 



77 



mentum teres, which holds the centre of the head of the femur 
to the acetabulum; the cotyloid, a cartilaginous cord around 
the margin of the acetabulum, which cavity it serves to deepen; 
the transverse, extending across the notch of the acetabulum; 
and the synovial membrane, 
which invests the head of 
the femur, and spreads 
around the ligamentum 
teres. 

A ekle view of the li^nients of the 
pelvis and hip joint is seen in Fig. 
T9l 1. Oblique eacro iliac. 2. Pos- 
terior sacro-ischiatic. 3. Anterior 
ischkitic. 4. Great sacro-is- 
chiatic foramen. 5. Lessor sacro- 
i schistic foramen. 6. Cotyloid lig- 
ament of the acetabulum. 7. Lig- 
amentum teres. 8. Edge of the 
capsular. 9. Obturator membrane 
partly exhibited. 

The hip joint has an ex- 
tensive range of movements 
— flexion, extension, adduc- 
tion, abduction. circumduction and rotation. 

The fossa at the bottom of the acetabulum is filled by an 
adipose mass, covered by synovial membrane, which serves as 
an elastic cushion to the head of the bone during its move- 
ments. 

The Kxee Joixt. — The femur, tibia, and fibula, and the 
patella, are connected at the knee joint by thirteen ligaments; 
the first-named five are external, and the next five are internal 
to the articulation, and the remaining three are mere folds of 
synovial membrane. 

The (interior, or ligamentum patella?, is a prolongation of the 

tendon of the extensor muscles of the thigh downward to the 

tubercle of the tibia, enclosing the patella; the posterior is a 

1 expansion covering the whole back part of the joinl ; 

HM internal lateral is a broad layer extending between the 




Fig. 79.— Pelvis and Hip Laterally. 



How is the hip joint formed) What are its motions? How is tin- knee- 
joint formed V 



78 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



internal condyle of the femur and the inner tuberosity of the 
tibia; the two external lateral connect the external condyle of 
the femur to the outer part of the head of the tibia, and the 
external semi-lunar cartilage of the articular surfaces with the 
fibula. Within the joint are the anterior and posterior crucial, 
which connect the head of the tibia with the condyles of the 
femur; the transverse, a slip of fibres extending between the 
semi-lunar and internal cartilages ; the coro- 
nary, short fibres connecting the borders of 
the semi-lunar cartilages to the head of the 
tibia and surrounding ligaments. 

Fig. 80 exhibits a front view of the ligaments. 1. The ten- 
don of the quadriceps extensor muscle of the leg. 2. 
Patella. 3. Anterior ligament. 4. 4. Synovial membrane. 
5. Internal lateral ligament. 6. The long division of the 
external lateral. 7. Anterior superior tibio-fibular ligament. 

The semi-lunar cartilages are two falciform 
fibrous plates around the margin of the head' 
of the tibia, serving to deepen the articular 
surface for the condyles of the femur. 




Knee-Joint Anteri- 
orly. 

Fig. 81. 




Knee-Joint Posteri- 
orly. 



Fig. 81 gives a posterior view of the ligaments. 1. The 
fasciculus of the posterior ligament. 2. The tendon of 
the semi-membranous muscle, from which the posterior 
ligament is derived. 3. The process of the tendon which 
spreads out in the fascia of the popliteus muscle. 4. The 
process which is sent inward beneath the internal lateral 
ligament. 5. Posterior part of the internal lateral liga- 
ment. 6. The long division of the external lateral. 7. Its 
short division. 8. Tendon of the popliteus cut short. 9. 
Posterior superior tibio-fibular ligament. 

The synovial membrane of this joint is 
the most extensive in the skeleton, investing 
the cartilaginous surfaces of the condyles of 
the femur, of the head of the tibia, and of 
the inner surface of the patella. Between it 
and the ligamentum patellae is a mass of 
fatty substance, which presses the membrane 



What is the function of the semi-lunar cartilages ? What is peculiar in the 
Bynovial membrane of the knee joint ? 



THE LIGAMENTS.— SYNDESMOLOGY. 79 

toward the interior of the joint, and occupies the fossae between 
the condyles. 

A slender, conical process of synovial membrane, called liga- 
mentum mucosa m. proceeds from the transverse ligament. Jts 
apex is connected with the anterior part of the condyloid notch, 
and its base is lost in the mass of fat which projects into the 
joint beneath the patella. The alar ligaments are two fringed 
folds of synovial membrane, extending from the ligament 11111 
mucosum along the edges of the mass of fat to the sides of the 
patella. 

The movements of this joint are flexion and extension, with a 
slight degree of rotation when the knee is semi-flexed. 

Tibio-Fibular Joints. — The bones of the leg are firmly con- 
nected together at each extremity by five ligaments : the inter- 
osseous, transverse, anterior and posterior, to which is to be 
added the synodal membrane. 

The movements between these bones is a very slight degree 
of yielding or sliding motion. 

Fig. 82. 
Fig. 82 is an external view of the ankle articulation. 
1. Tibia. 2. External malleolus of the fibula. 
3. 3. Astragalus. 4. Os calcis. 5. Cuboid. 6. An- 
terior fasciculus of the external lateral ligament 
attached to the astragalus. 7. Its middle fasci- 
culus attached to the calcis. 8. Its posterior 
fasciculus attached to the astragalus. 9. Ante- 
rior ligament. 

The Axexe- Joint. — This is formed 
by the tibia and fibnla with their mal- 
leolar processes above, and the astrag- 
alus below, connected by three liga- 
ments: the anterior^ a thin membranous layer; the internal 
lateral, or deltoid, a triangular layer of fibres attached abovo 
to the internal malleolus, and below to the astragalus, calcis, 
and scaphoid ; and the external lateral, which consists of three 
separate bundles of fibres, proceeding from the external malle- 
olus, the anterior of which is attached to the astragalus, the 
posterior to the back part of the same bone, and the middle to 

What movements of the knee joint? How are the tibio-fibular joints 
formed ? How is the ankle-joint formed ? 




Ankle-Joint Externally. 



80 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 




Ankle Joint Pos- 
teriorly. 



Fig. 84. 



the outer side of the os calcis. The motions of this joint are 

flexion and extension. 

Fig. 83 is a posterior view of the ankle joint. 1. Lower part of 
the inter-osseous membrane. 2. Posterior inferior ligament 
connecting the tibia and fibula. 3. Transverse ligament. 4* 
Internal lateral. 5. Posterior fasciculus of the internal lateral. 
6. Middle fasciculus of the external lateral. 7. Synovial mem- 
brane. 8. Os calcis. 

The Tarsal Joints. — The bones of the tarsus 
are connected by dorsal ligaments, which pass 
from each bone to all others contiguous: the 
plantar, which connect their under surfaces simi- 
larly, and the inter-osseous, of which there are 
five, situated between adjoining bones. These 
articulations admit of a slight degree of motion 
—forward, backward, and laterally ; and between 
the first and second range of bones adduction 
and abduction, with slight flexion and exten- 
sion, take place. 

The ligaments of the sole of the foot are seen in Fig. 84. 1. Os 
calcis. 2. Astragalus. 3. Tuberosity of the scaphoid. 4. 
Long calcaneo-cuboid ligament. 5. Part of the short calca- 
neocuboid. 6. Calcaneo-scaphoid. 7. Plantar tarsal. 8. 8. 
Tendon of the peroneus-longus muscle. 9. 9. Plantar tarso- 
metatarsal ligaments. 10. Plantar ligament of the metatarso- 
phalangeal joint of the great toe; the same ligament is seen 
upon the other toes. 11. Lateral ligaments of the metatarso- 
phalangeal joint. 12. Transverse ligament. 13, Lateral lig- 
aments of the phalanges of the great toe; the same ligaments 
are seen upon the other toes. 

Tarso-Metatarsal Joints. — The ligaments 
connecting the tarsal and metatarsal bones are 
also dorsal, plantar, and inter- osseous. The sy- 
novial membranes are three. The only motion 
is a slight yielding to pressure. 

Metatarso-Phalangeal Joests.— The bones 
of the metatarsus are connected with those of 
the toes by ligaments, called plantar, lateral, 
and transverse, so arranged as to admit of flexion, extension, 




Sole of the Foot. 



How are the tarsal joints formed? Tarso-metatarsal ? Metatarso-phalangeal ? 



THE LIGAMENTS-SYNDESMOLOGY. SI 

adduction and abduction. The expansion of the extensor tendon 
supplies the place of a dorsal ligament. 

The Toe Joixts. — The phalanges of the toes have the snme 
ligamentous connection as those of the lingers, and the same 
variety and extent of motion. 

Note. — In amputations of the tarso-metatarsal joint, it must 
be understood that the metatarsal bone of the second toe is 
strongly wedged between the internal and external cuneiform 
bones, being the most firmly articulated of all the metatarsal 
bones. 

What are the motions of the metatarso-phalangeal joints ? How are the 
toe joints formed ? 



CHAPTER VII. 

MYOLOGY. 

Myology is the subject or doctrine of the muscles. The 
muscles, which constitute the flesh proper of all animals, and 
of man, are the motory organs. Their actions perform all the 
motions of the body. The muscles are much more numerous 
in some of the smaller animals than in man; even the cater- 
pillar insect has several thousands, while man has but a few 
hundreds. 

It is by the alternate contraction and relaxation of the mus- 
cular fibres that all functional motions are performed within 
the living domain, all locomotion by which the body moves 
from one place or position to another, and by which the 
thoughts and feelings of the soul or spirit are manifested in the 
expressions of the face. The arrangement of the muscles of 
the human face (fig. 85) admit, as will be seen at a glance, of 
motion in any or all parts of the face, and in all possible direc- 
tions. This is why the unconstrained action of the muscles of 
the face are so true to the ideas and emotions of the mental 
organs, that the child and the young animal, never err in inter- 
preting one's disposition towards them by looking him in the 
face. It is true, that education and training enable us, in a 
great measure, to control the action of the muscles of the face 
by will power, and so disguise our intentions and sentiments as 
to deceive others. Those, therefore, who would fully under- 
stand the subject, must study expression in the faces of animals 
and unsophisticated young children. 

Few persons, if any, who have represented Shakespeare's great 
characters on the stage, ever had a greater command of the 
muscles of- expression than Madame Rachel ; yet no person, in 

What is myology ? How are functional motions performed ? What is pecu- 
liar in the muscles of the face. 



MYOLOGY. 



83 




Fig. 85.— Muscles of the Face. 

A, A, B. R.— Oceipito Frontalis, th<' broad muscle of the forehe.ad. The Hunt shade* 

show it- tendinoiu ezp 1 the dark lines its fleshy fibre-, (.:. 0, 0, 0. <>rl>i- 

braram, the circular muscle of the eyelids, D, I). Compressor oaree, tin* 

compp !••- of the nostrils, k. Bridge of the i". Levator Labil 

thai raises the upper lip. H, n. Zygomatic Major, which 

■••of tin- mouth. K. k. k. k. Orbicularis Oris, the round moscle of th<> 

mouth. of the no-tril. 

r .M'Hii. the muscles which elevate the chin. 0, 0. Depressor Angull Oris, 
which pull.- down the angle of the mouth,. <, as, which moTes the mouth 

laterally. I; aion. 



84 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



repose, could present a more placid and expressionless face. 
Fig. 86. 

The muscles are composed of parallel fibres, of a deep red 
color, and usually termed lean flesh. These fibres are held 
together by a delicate web of areolar tissue, which becomes 
condensed and so modified toward the extremities of the mus- 
cles as to form glistening fibres and cords, called tendons, by 
which they are attached to the surface of the bones. 

The greater portion of the bulk 
of the body is composed of mus- 
cular tissue. In the limbs the 
muscles invest and protect the 
bones and some of the joints. In 
the trunk they are spread out to 
enclose cavities, and form a defen- 
sive wall, capable of yielding to 
external pressure, and again re- 
turning to its original position. 
The tendons of broad muscles are 
often spread out, forming expan- 
sions called aponeuroses. 

The names of muscles are gener- 
ally derived from some prominent 
character in shape, structure, or 
Fig. 86.-RACHEL. use? or points of attachment. The 

more fixed or central point of attachment is called the origin 
of a muscle, and its movable extremity its insertion. Some 
muscles, however, pull equally at both extremities. 

Structure of Muscle. — Muscular tissue is composed of bun- 
dles of fibres, of variable size, called fasciculi, enclosed in a 
cellular sheath. Each fasciculus is composed of smaller bun- 
dies, and each bundle of single fibres. These ultimate fibres, 
by microscopic examination, appear to be composed of still 
smaller fasciculi, called ultimate fibrils, enclosed in a delicate 
sheath, called myolemma. Anatomists distinguish two kinds of 
ultimate muscular fibre : that of voluntary, or animal life, and 
that of involuntary, or organic life. 

Of what are muscles composed ? What are tendons ? Aponeuroses ? What 
is the structure of muscular tissues ? Kinds ? 




MYOLOGY. 



85 




Fig. 87.— Ultimate Fibre. 



The ultimate fibre of animal life is distinguished by unifor- 
mity of calibre, by its longitudinal Btriae, and by transverse 
markings, which occur at short regular distances. The ultimate 
-fibrils arc regarded as beaded filaments, consisting of a regular 
succession of segments and constrictions. An ultimate fibre is 
composed of a bundle of these fibrils, so disposed that all the 
- gmentfl and all the constrictions correspond, in this manner 
giving rise to alternate light and dark lines of the transverse 
stria?. 

W represents <m ultimate fibre of aiiimal life, in 
which the transverse splitting into discs, in the direc- 
tion of the constrictions of the ultimate fibrils, is 
seen. 

The ultimate fibre of organic life is a 
simple homogeneous filament, fiat, with- 
out transverse markings, and much small- 
er than that of animal life. The fibres 
are collected into fasciculi of various 

■<. and held together by dark nuclear fibres. Generally a 
dark line, or several dark points, may be seen in the interior of 
the organic fibres; and sometimes the fibre is enlarged at irreg- 
ular distances; these appearances are owing to 1 2 
the presence of unobliterated nuclei of the cells 
from which the fibre was originally developed. 

In Fig. 88. 1 exhibits a muscular fibre of organic life from the blad- 
der, magnified GOO times. Four of the nuclei are seen. 2 repre- 
sents a fibre of organic life from the stomach, equally magnified. 

Development of Muscular Fibre. — This is 
effected by the formation of nucleated cells out 
of an original blastema, or fluid substance capable 
of becoming organized, and the conversion of the 
cells into the tubuli of ultimate fibres, by the 
process already described in relation to the devel- 
opment of bom-, while their contents are transformed into ulti- 
mate fibrils; in this way the cell membranes constitute the 
myolemina. and their contents a blastema, out of which new 
formed. 




Fig. 88.— Fibues. 



of animal life (Hstmgoished J Of organic life I 
iscular fibre develop 




Development of Muscle 



gg POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

Fig 89 Pig. 90 Fig. 89, is a muscular fibre of animal life, enclosed in its 

myolemma The transverse and longitudinal striae are 
seen. Fig 90. Muscular fibres of animal life, more highly 
magnified than the former. The myolemma is so thin and 
transparent that the ultimate fibrils can be seen through 
it. They show the nature of the longitudinal striae, as 
well as the formation of the transverse striae. 

The voluntary system, or that of animal 
life, is developed from the external or 
serous layer of the germinal membrane, 
and comprehends all of the muscles of the 
limbs and trunk. The involuntary, or organic system, is formed 
from the internal or mucous layer, and constitutes the thin 
muscular structure of the alimentary canal, bladder, and inter- 
nal organs of generation. At the commencement and termina- 
tion of the alimentary canal, both classes of fibres are blended 
in the formation of the muscular coat. The heart is developed 
from the middle or vascular layer of germinal membrane, and 
is composed of ultimate fibres having the transverse striae of 
the muscles of animal life, although its action is involuntary. 

MUSCLES OF THE HEAD AND FACE. 

These have been divided into eight groups — cranial, orbital, 
ocular, nasal, superior labal, inferior labal, maxillary, and 
auricular. 

Cranial Group. — This has but one muscle, the occipitofron- 
tal. It is a broad expansion, covering the whole side of the 
vertex of the skull from the occiput to the eyebrow. It arises 
by tendinous fibres from the outer two-thirds of the upper 
curved line of the occipital, and from the mastoid process of 
the temporal bone. It is inserted above the orbit by means of 
a blending of its fibres with those of the orbicularis palpebra- 
rum, corrugator supercilii, levator labii superioris alseque nasi, 
and pyramidalis nasi. Its use is to raise the eyebrows, in doing 
which the integuments of the forehead are wrinkled. In some 
persons the whole scalp moves by the contraction of this muscle. 

The Orbital Group. — Three muscles: 1. Orbicularis palpe- 
brarum, a sphincter or closing muscle, which surrounds the 



Of what are voluntary muscles formed? Involuntary? What muscles 
constitute the cranial group ? Orbital ? 



MYOLOGY. 



87 



orbit and eyelids. 2. Corrugator supereilii, a narrow, pointed 
muscle, arising from the inner extremity of the superciliary 
ridge; inserted into the orbicularis palpebrarum. S. Tensor 
tarsi) a very -mall muscle, arising from the orbital surface cf 
the lachrymal bone; inserted by two slips into the lachrymal 

canals. The USi of this group is to dose the lids, draw the eye- 
brows downward and inward, and extend the lachrymal canals. 

FL-. 91 ^ho\v> the moflclefl of tlve head and 
face. 1. Frontal portion of the occipito- 
frontalte. *2. Its occipital portion. 3. Its 
aponeurosis, or expansion. 4. Orbicularis 
palpebrarum, which conceals the corruu r a- 
tor supercilii and tensor tarsi. 5. Pyra- 
midal^ nasi. ti. Compressors nasi. 7. Or- 
bicularis oris. S. Levator labii superioris 
alseque nasi. 9. Levator labii superioris 
proprius; the lower part of the levator 
an-uli oris is seen between 10 and 11. 10. 
Zygomaticus minor. 11. Zyj-t.matiius ma- 
jor. 12. Pepn-sor labii inferioris 13. De- 
pressor anguli oris. 14. Levator labii infe- 
rioris. 15. Superficial portion of the mas- 
eeter. 16. Its deep portion. 17. Attrahens 
aurem. 18. The buccinator. 19. Attollens 
aurem. 20. Temporal fascia covering in 
the temporal muscle. 21 . Retrahens aurem. 
22. Anterior belly of the digastneus; its 
tendon is seen passing through its aponeu- 
rotic pulley. 23. Stylo-hyoid, pierced by 
the posterior belly of the digastricus. 24. 
Mylo-hyoideus. 25. Upper part of the -sterno-mastoid. 2G. Upper part of the tra- 
pezius. The splenius is seen between 25 and 66. 

The Oculab GROUP. — This group consists of seven: 1. Leva- 
alpebra^ long, thin, ami triangular, situated in the upper 
parr of the orbit; arises from the upper margin of the optio 
foramen and sheath of the optic nerve; inserted into the upper 
border of the upper tarsal cartilage. 2. Rectus superior, arising 
with the preceding; inserted into the globe of the eye about 
three lines from the margin of the cornea. 4. Rectus internus, 
a short, thick muscle; arises from the common tendon and the 

sheath of tie- Optic mr\ .• ; inSi Hi 'I into tin* inner surface of t he 

globe, near the margin of the cornea. 5. Rectus exh i nus; arist 3 




Fig. 91.— Muscles of the Head and 
Face. 



* trethemuBcl head and bee called? What muscles consti- 

tute the ocular group ! 



SS POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

from the common tendon, and from the margin of the optic for- 
men ; inserted into the outer surface of the globe near the cornea. 
6. Obliquus superior ; arises from the margin of the optic fora- 
men and sheath of the optic nerve ; inserted into the sclerotic 
coat near the entrance of the optic nerve. 7. Obliquus inferior ; 
arises from the inner margin of the superior maxillary bone; 
inserted into the outer and superior part of the eyeball, near 
the entrance of the optic nerve. 

Uses. — The levator raises the upper eyelids; the four recti, 
when acting singly, pull the eyeball upward, downward, in- 
ward, and outward; the superior oblique rolls the globe inward 
and forward; the inferior oblique rolls the globe outward and 
backward. 

Fig. 92 is a view of the ocular group, 
taken from the outer side of the right 
orbit. 1. A small fragment of the 
sphenoid hone around the entrance 
of the optic nerve into the orbit. 2. 
Optic nerve. 3. Globe of the eye. 4. 
Levator palpebral muscle. 5. Supe- 
rior oblique. 6. Its cartilaginous pul- 
ley. 7. Its reflected tendon. 8. In- 
ferior oblique. 9. Superior rectus. • 
Fig. 92.— Muscles of the Eyeball. 10. Internal rectus, almost concealed 

by the optic nerve. 11. Parts "of the 
external rectus, showing its two heads of origin. 12. Extremity of the external 
rectus at its insertion. 13. Inferior rectus. 14. The tunica albuginea, which is 
formed by the expansion of the tendons of the four recti muscles. 

The Nasai. Group.— Three muscles: 1. Pijramidalis nasi, a 
slip of fibres extending from the occipito-frontalis downward 
upon the bridge of the nose ; inserted into the tendinous expan- 
sion of the compressores nasi. 2. Compressor nasi, a thin tri- 
angular muscle; arises from the canine fossa of the superior 
maxillary bone, and, spreading out on the side of the nose into 
a tendinous expansion, is continuous across its ridge with its 
fellow of the opposite side. 3. Dilator naris, a thin muscular 
slip expanded upon the ala of the nostril. 

Uses.— The first draws down the inner angle of the eyebrow, 
and assists the occipito-frontalis ; the second expands rather 




What motions has the globe of the eye ? What muscles constitute the 
nasal group ? 



MYOLOGY. §9 

than compresses the nostril; the last dilates the cavity of the 
nostril. 

Tiik Superior Labial Group. — Seven muscles constitute 
this group: 1. Orbicularis oris, a sphincter completely sur- 
rounding the mouth, the use of which La to close the lips. $, 
l. nasi; thin, triangular, arising 

from the nasal process; inserted, by two distinct portions, into 
the al:i of the nose and upper lip; its use is to raise the upper 
lip, and expand the opening of the nose. 3. Levator labiisupe- 
rioris \ \ ; thin, quadrilateral, arising from the lower 

border of the orbit: inserted into the integument of the upper 
lip; its use is to elevate the upper lip. -A. Levator anguli oris, 
from the canine fossa of the upper jaw, and, passing 
outwardly, is inserted into the angle of the mouth, which it 
draws inward and upward. 5. Zygomaticus major, and zygo 
maticus minor; two slender fasciculi of fibres, arising from the 
malar bon< led into the angle of the mouth; they pull 

the angle upward and outward, as in laughing. 7. Depressot 
alceque nasi, an oval slip, arising from the inci- 
fossa; into the upper lip, and into the ala and 

columna of the nose; it lifts the upper lip. with the ala of the 
nose, and expands the opening of the n\; 

The Inferior Labial Group. — Comprising three muscles: 
Depressor labii inferioris; arise* from the side of the symphisis 
of the lower jaw; inserted into the orbicularis muscle and in- 
iments of the lower lip; it draws the under lip directly 
downward and a little outward. 2. Depressor anguli oris, a 
triangular plane, / from the external oblique side of the 

lower jaw; inserted into the angle of the mouth; it pulls the 
angle of the mouth either downward and inward, or downward 
and outward, by the radiation of its fibres, as in the expression 
of grief. 3. Levator labii tyferioris, a conical slip, arising from 
the inci-iv. & the lower jaw; inserted into the integu- 

ments of the chin, which it rais b and protrudes. 

The Maxillary Gkohp.— Five muscles: 1. Mdsseter, short 
and thick, composed ol two planes of fibres, superficial and 
deep; the superficial ari$es from the tuberosity of the upper 

What muBclefl constit jroupt mferlof Labial group ? 

Maxillary group f 



90 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

jaw, the lower edge of the malar bone and zygoma, and is in- 
seized into the ramus and angle of the lower jaw; the deep layer. 
arises from the back part of the zygoma, and is inserted into 
the upper half of the ramus. 2. Temporalis, a broad radiating 
muscle, occupying a considerable extent of the side of the head, 
and filling the temporal fossa; arises from the temporal ridge, 
temporal fascia, and temporal fossa, and converging into a 
strong, narrow tendon, is inserted into the coronoid process. 
3. Buccinator ; arises from the alveolar processes of the upper 
jaw, and from the external oblique line of the lower jaw; 
inserted into the angle of the* mouth, where its converging 
fibres cross each other. 4. External pterygoid, a short, thick 
muscle, arising two-headed from the sphenoid bone; inserted 
into the neck of the lower jaw. 5. Internal pterygoid, thick, 
quadrangular, arising from the pterygoid fossa; inserted into 
the ramus and angle of the lower jaw. 

Uses. — This group comprises the active agents in mastication. 
The buccinator circumscribes the cavity of the mouth, and 
shortens the cavity of the pharynx in deglutition. The masse- 
ter, temporal and internal pterygoid, close the jaws, and per- 
form the bruising motions. The two last mentioned, with the 
external pterygoid, carry the lower jaw forward upon the upper, 

thus producing the grinding mo- 

r-""^ / /~\ tion. All of these muscles, acting 

• Jlwiii vAy I i V successively, produce a lateral and 

s ^ * Jlffa vVJ? O r °t a t° r y movement of the lower jaw 

-*f£%d^^S&HJilm '''$¥? if The tw0 pterygoid muscles are seen in Fig.. 

*\ 'CTri'teE- - W\ ■ ■ V 93 - Tiie z yg° mat ic arch and most of the 

^^o-^'vi \u^^^H^SS!\ ' "'1m ramus have been removed to "bring them into 

v^mfw ^T^f^^^\\\ view. 1. The sphenoid origin of the exter- 

i ^w^fSfc/jTT Ji/f na * Pterygoid. 2. Its pterygoid origin. 3. 

y^^Jm^^^^nlln Internal pterygoid muscles. 

^*** i< ^-^_ -~v ^) The Auricular Group. — Three t 
muscles : 1. Attollens aurem; 2. 

Fig. 93.— Pterygoid Muscles. t , ^ _ , 

Attraliens aurem; 3. Retrahens 
aurem. These small muscles of the ear possess ordinarily but. 
little contractility; they raise, extend, and retract the ear in the 
lower animals, and sometimes, to some extent, in human beings. 

What muscles are especial^ concerned in mastication? What muscles 
constitute the auricular group ? 



MYOLOGY. 91 



MUSCLES OF THE NECK. 



The muscles of the neck are divided into ei^ht groups, viz. : 
Tn>: Superficial Group. — Two muscles: 1. Platysma myoides, 

arises from the integument over the pectoralis major and deltoid 
muscles; inserted into the side of the chin, oblique line of the 
lower jaw, angle of the mouth, and cellular tissue of the face. 
It draws the angle of the mouth, depresses the lower jaw, also 
produces traction on the integuments of the neck. 2. Sternn- 
etesdo-mastoid is the large oblique muscle of the neck; arises 
from the sternum and clavicle ; inserted into the mastoid process 
and occipital bone. Uses. — AVhen both act together the head is 
bowed forward; either one acting singly draws the head toward 
the shoulder, and carries the face toward the opposite side. 
When the clavicular portions act more forcibly than the ster- 
nal, they give steadiness to the head, enabling it to support 
great weights. 

The Laryngeal Group. — This group is subdivided into de- 

9 and elevators of the os hyoides and larynx, The depres- 

S are four; 1. Sterno-hyoldeus, a ribbon-like band, arising from 

the back of the upper bone of the sternum and inner extremity 

of the clavicle; inserted into the back of the os hyoides. 2. 

lio-thyrovhiis. a broader band, arising from the sternum 

with the preceding, and from the cartilage of the first rib; 

into the oblique line of the great ala of the thyroid 

cartilage. 3. Thyro-hynldeus, arises from the oblique line of the 

thyroid cartilage; inserted into the lower part of the body and 

it cornua of the hyoid bone. 4. Omo-hyoideus, arises from 

the uppei border of the scapula and transverse ligament of the 

supra-scapular notch: inserted into the lower border of the 

body of the hyoid bone. 

I. — All these muscles pull down the os hyoides and larynx. 
The first three draw them downward in the middle line; the 
latter inclines them to one or the other side, according to the 
position of tie.* head. 

The e&et re four muscles: 1. DigastricUS, a two bellied 

apt aw the musclea of tho neck divided? What consti- 
tute the laryngeal group! 



92 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

muscle, arising from the inner side of the mastoid process of 
the temporal bone; inserted into the lower jaw near its centre. 
2. Stylo-hyoideus, a slender muscle, arising from the middle of 
the styloid process ;. inserted into the central part of the body 
of the os hyoides. 3. Mylo-hyoideus, a triangular plane, form- 
ing, with its fellow, the floor of the mouth; arising from the 
molar ridge of the lower jaw; inserted into the body of the os 
hyoides, and into the raphe of the two muscles. 4. Gfenio-hyoi- 
deus, arising on the inner side of the centre of the lower jaw; 
inserted into the upper part of the body of the os hyoides. 

Uses. — All these .muscles raise the os hyoides when the lower 
jaw is closed, and act upon the lower jaw when the os hyoides 
is drawn down and fixed by its depressors. 

The Linguinal Group. — Five muscles: 1. Genio-hyo-glossus ; 
this is the proper muscle of the tongue; arises, narrow and 
pointed, from a tubercle on the inner side of the centre of the 
lower jaw; inserted by a fan-shaped attachment into the whole 
length of the tongue and body of the os hyoides. 2. Hyo-glossus, 
a square plane, arising from the great cornua and body of the 
os hyoides; inserted into the side of the tongue. 3. Lingualis, 
consisting of a small bundle, running from the base to the apex 
of the tongue. 4. Stylo-glossus, arising from the styloid process 
and stylo-maxillary ligament; inserted into the substance and 
side of the tongue. 5. Palato-glossus, constituting, with its 
fellow, the constrictor of the isthmus of the fauces ; is extended 
between the soft palate and base of the tongue. 

Uses. — The various directions of the fibres of the linguinal 
muscles give the tongue every conceivable variety of motion. 
The palato-glossi, assisted by the uvula, close the fauces com- 
pletely in the act of deglutition. 

The Pharyngeal Group. — Five muscles: 1. Constrictor infe- 
rior, arises from the upper rings of the trachea, cricoid, and 
thyroid cartilages; inserted into the middle of the pharynx. 
2. Constrictor medius, arises from the great cornu of the os 
hyoides and styio-hyoidean ligament, and its fibres, radiating 
from the origin, are inserted into the pharynx and basilar pro- 

What muscles constitute the linguinal group? What muscles form the 
pharyngeal group ? 



MYOLOGY. 93 

cess of the occipitis. 3. Constrictor superior^ arises from the 
molar ridge of the lower jaw, the internal pterygoid plate, and 
the pterygo-maxillary ligament; inserted with" the preceding. 
4. Stylo-pharyngeus, arising from the inner side of the base of 
the styloid process; its fibres spread out beneath the mucous 
membrane of the pharynx, and are inserted into the posterior 
border of the thyroid cartilage. 5. PnlatopJiaryng< us, arises 
from the soft palate ; inserted into the inner surface of the 
pharynx and posterior border of the thyroid cartilage. 

r >. — The constrictors contract upon the food as soon as it 
passes into the pharynx, and convey it downward to the oeso- 
phagus. The stylo-pharyngei draw the pharynx upward and 
widen it laterally; and the palato-pharyngei draw it upw r ard 
and assist in closing the opening of the fauces. 

Palatal Group. — The muscles of the soft palate are three; 
their situation is indicated by their names. They are: 1. Leva- 
tor palati, which raises the soft palate. 2. Tensor palati, which 
extends the palate laterally, so as to form a septum between 
the pharynx and posterior nares. 3. Azygos uvula, which short- 
ens the uvula. 

Prevertebral Group. — Five muscles: 1. Rectus anticus 
major, arises from the anterior tubercles of the transverse pro- 
cesses of the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth cervical vertebrae; 
inserted into the basilar porcess of the occipitis. 2. Rectus 
anticus minor, arises from the side of the atlas; inserted with 
the preceding. 3. Scalenus anticus, a triangular muscle, aris- 
ing with the rectus anticus major; inserted into the inner 
border of the first rib. 4. Scalenus posticus, arises from the 
posterior tubercles of all the cervical vertebrae, except the first; 
inserted into the first and second ribs by fleshy fibres. 5. 
Longus colli, a long flat muscle, consisting of two portions, the 
upper arising from the anterior tubercle of the atlas, and 
serted into the transverse processes of the third, fourth, nix I 
fifth cervical vertebrae; and the lower arising from the bodies 
of the second and third, and transverse processes of the fourth 
and fifth, and passing down the neck, to be inserted into the 

What muscles constitute the palatal group ! What the prevertebral group ! 



94 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 




Fio. 94.— Muscles of the Head and 
Neck. 



bodies of the three lower cervical 
and three upper dorsal vertebrae. 
Uses. — The rectus major and 
minor preserve the equilibrium 
of the head upon the atlas, and 
when acting with the longus 
colli, flex and rotate the head 
and vertebrae of the neck. The 
scaleni flex the vertebral column, 
and assist in elevating the ribs 
in inspiration. 

The Laryngeal Group will 
be described with the anatomy 
of the larynx. 

In Figs. 94 and 95 the most prominent mus- 
cles of the head and neck are seen. A. 
Occipito-frontalis. B. Attollens aurem. 
C. The concha. D. Orbicularis palpebra- 
rum. E. Compressor naris. F. Zygomati- 
cus major. G. Levator labii supcrioris 
alseque nasi. H. Zygomaticus minor. I. 
Levator anguli oris. K. Masseter. L. De- 
pressor anguli oris. M. Sterno-cleido mas- 
toideus. O. Depressor labii inferioris. 
P. Orbicularis oris. Q. Temporalis. R. 
Splenius. S. Trapezius. T. Sterno-hyoi- 
deus. a. Helix, b. Anti-helix, c. Con- 
cha. 

MUSCLES OF THE BACK. 

The muscles of the back are 
divided into six layers. 

First Layer. — Two muscles: 
1. Trapezius; arises from the up- 
per curved line of the occipitis, 
ligament of the neck, and spines 
of the dorsal vertebrae ; inserted into the spine and acromion of 
the scapula, and scapular third of the clavicle. 2. Latissimus 
dorsi, covering the whole lower part of the back and loins; 




Fig. 95.-~Muscles op the Head and 
Neck. 



What are the principal muscles of the head and neck ? Into how many 
laj T ers are the muscles of the back divided ? 



MYOI 



95 




Fig. 



Eytkhnal Muscles of the Back. 



In Fig 06 the first, second, and part of the third layer are seen; the first on the rijrht, 
and the second on the left sick*. 1. Trapezius. 2. The tendinous portion which 
forms, with the corresponding part of the opposite muscle, the tendinous ellipse 
on the back of the neck. 8. Acromion process and spine of the scapula. I. I.atis- 
rfmuadorsi. •"). Deltoid. *>. Infra tpinatus, teres minor, and tores major, all mus- 
f the dorsum of the scapula. 7. External oblique 8. Gluteus mediae. 9. 
Glutei maxirai. 10. Levator angnli scapulae. 11. Bhomboideus minor. 12, Rhom- 
boid' Splenius capitis; the complexufl ia Immediately above, and 
overlaid by it. it. Splenius colli; partially seen. 16. Vertebral aponeurosis. 16. 
Sernr 17. g spinatus. 19. Teres mi- 
nor. 20. Teres major. n. Long bead <»f the triceps, passing between th< 
minor and i - rratoa majrnus, proceeding upward from 
base of the scapula. .< oblique. 



What are the principf as of the bark? 



Where does the 



96 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

arises from the spines of the seven lower dorsal and all the 
lumbar vertebrae, sacral spines, back part of the crest of the 
ilium, and three lower ribs ; the fibres converge as they ascend, 
cross the lower angle of the scapula, curve around the lower 
border of the teres major, and are inserted into the bicipital 
groove of the humerus. 

Uses. — The upper fibres of the trapezius draw the shoulder 
upward and backward, the middle directly backward, and the 
lower downward and backward. The latissimus dorsi draws 
the arm backward and downward, and rotates it inward ; if the 
arm be fixed it will draw the spine to that side, and raise the 
lower rib, thus aiding inspiration ; if both arms be fixed, both 
muscles will draw the whole trunk forward, as in climbing, 
walking on crutches, etc. 

Note. — The ligamentum nuchas is a thin cellulo-fibrous layer 
between the occipital bone and spine of the seventh cervical 
vertebrae. 

Second Layer. — Three muscles: 1. Levator anguli scapulce ; 
arises from the transverse processes of the four cervical verte- 
brae; inserted into the upper angle and posterior border of the 
scapula. 2. BJiomboideus minor ; arises from the spines of the 
two last cervical vertebrae and ligamentum nuchae ; inserted into 
the posterior border of the scapula. 3. BJiomboideus minor ; 
arises from the spines of the last cervical and four upper dorsal 
vertebrae ; inserted with the preceding. 

Uses. — The levator lifts the upper angle of the scapula, and 
with the rhomboidei carry the shoulder upward and backward. 

Third Layer. — These muscles all arise from the spines of 
the vertebral column, and pass outwardly. There are three of 
them: 1. Serratus posticus superior ; arises from the spines of 
the lower cervical and upper dorsal vertebrae; inserted into the 
upper borders of the upper ribs. 2. terrains posticus inferior; 
arises from the spines of the two last dorsal and three upper 
lumbar vertebrae; inserted into the lower borders of the four 
lower ribs. 3. The splenius muscle, arising from the lower part 
of the ligamentum nuchae, and spines of the four lower cervical 
and six upper dorsal vertebrae; inserted by two divisions, the 



What is the ligamentum nuchse ? What muscles constitute the second 
layer ? Third layer ? 



MYOLOGY. 97 

first, called splenitis capitis, into the occipital bone, and the 
second, called splenitis colli, into the transverse processes of the 
upper cervical vertebra. 

Uses. — The serrati are muscles of respiration; their actions 
antagonize, the posterior drawing the ribs upward to expand 
the chest, and the inferior drawing down the low.r ribs, and 
diminishing the cavity of the chest, thus rendering the first an 
inspiratory, and the second an expiratory muscle. The splenii 
of one side draw the vertebral column backward and to one 
side, and rotate the head toward the corresponding shoul ler. 
The splenii of both sides acting together draw the head for- 
ward: they antagonize the sterno-mastoid muscles. 

Fourth Layer. — Seven muscles: 1. Sacro-lumbalis ; arises 
from the back part of the crest of the ilium, posterior surface 
of the sacrum and lumbar vertebrae ; inserted by separate ten- 
dons into the angles of the six lower ribs. 2. Longissimus dor si; 
arises with the preceding; inserted into all the ribs between 
their tubercles and angles. 3. Spinalis dor si; arises from the 
spines of the two upper lumbar and three lower dorsal verte- 
brae: insetted into the opines of all the upper dorsal vertebrae. 
4. Cervicalis aseendens; arises from the angles of the four upper 
ribs: inserted into the transverse processes of the four lower 
cervical vertebrae. 5. Transfer salis colli ; arises from the trans- 
verse processes of the four upper dorsal vertebrae ; inserted into 
the like processes of the five middle cervical. 6. Traehleo-mas- 
toid; arises from the transverse processes of the four upper dor- 
sal and five lower cervical vertebrae; inserted into the mastoid 
process. 7. Comphxus, a large muscle, forming, with the sple- 
nius. the great bulk of the back of the neck; arises from the 
transverse processes of the four upper dorsal, and transverse 
and articular processes of the five lower cervical vertebrae ; 
rted into the occipital bone, near the spine. 

—Tli"-" muscles hold the vertebral column erect, and 
adying the head; the complexus contracts the mas- 
dee on the anterior side of the neck; when the muscles of one 
alone, they produce a rotation of the head. 

How <i" the -'Tr.iti muscles iffeet respiration f How do the BplenU muscles 



98 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



Fifth Layer. — Seven muscles: 1. Semi-spinalis dorsi ; arises 
from the transverse processes of the six lower dorsal, and is 
inserted into the spines of the four upper dorsal vertebrae. 2. 
Semi-spinalis colli ; arises from the transverse processes of the 
four upper dorsal, and is inserted into the spines of the five 
upper cervical vertebrae . 3. Rectus posticus major ; arises from 
the spines of the axis; inserted into the lower curved line of 
the occipitis. 4. Rectus posticus minor ; arises from the spinous 
tubercle of the atlas; inserted into the occipitis, below the 
former. 5. Rectus lateralis ; arises from the transverse process 

of the atlas ; inserted into the occipi- 
tis, external to the condyle. 6. Obli- 
quus inferior ; arises from the spine 
into of the axis ; inserted the extrem- 
ity of the transverse process of the 
atlas. 7. Obliquus superior ; arises 
where the preceding is inserted; in- 
serted into the occipitis, between the 
curved lines. 

Uses. — The semi-spinales contrib- 
ute to the support of the back in 
the erect position ; the recti produce 
the antero-posterior, and the obliqui 
the rotatory movement of the atlas 
on the axis. 

In Fig. 97 are seen the fourth and fifth, and part 
of the sixth layer. 1. Origin of the sacro- 
lumbal and Ion gissimus dorsi. 2. Sacro-lum- 
balis. 3. Longissimus dorsi. 4. Spinalis dorsi. 
5. Cervicalis ascendens. 6. Transversalis colli. 
7. Trachleo-mastoideus. 8. Complexus. 9. 
Transversalis colli. 10. Semi - spinalis dorsi. 
11. Semi-spinalis colli. 12. Recticus posticus 
minor. 13. Rectus posticus major. 14. Obli- 
quus superior. 15. Obliquus inferior. 16. 
Multifidus spinas. 17. Levatores costarum. 
18. Inter-transversales. 19. Quadratus lumbo- 




Fig. 97.— Lstnek Muscles of the 
Back. 



Sixth Layer. — Five muscles: 1. 



What muscles, support the back in the erect position? What muscles 
rotate the head ? 



MYOLOGY. 99 

JIultifidus spince, consisting of bundles of fibres, arising from 
the transverse processes of all the vertebra from the sacrum 
to the axis; inserted into the spines of the first or second verte- 
bra^ above their origin. 2. LewUores costaruni, consisting of 
twelve distinct fasciculi on each side, which arise from the 
transverse processes of the dorsal vertebne, and are ins, rted 
into the ribs below, between the tubercles and angles. 3. 
Supra-spinalis, composed of fasciculi arising from 'the lower 
cervical and upper dorsal vertebrae; inserted into the spine of 
the axis. 4. Inter-spinales y small slips arranged in pairs, situ- 
ated between the spines of all the vertebrae. 5. Liter -trans ver- 
sales, small quadrilateral slips between the transverse processes 
of all the vertebra. 

Uses. — The levators raise the posterior parts of the ribs in 
inspiration ; the others are auxiliaries to the larger muscles in 
supporting the body, and holding the bones in position. 

MUSCLES OF THE THORAX. 

The principal muscles of the thorax belong also to the upper 
extremity. Those proper to the thorax are three : 

1. External intercosteds. 2. Internal intercostals. 3. Trian- 
gularis stemi. 

The intercostals are eleven internal and eleven external 
planes of muscular and tendinous fibres, situated obliquely be- 
tween the adjacent ribs, and filling the intercostal spaces. The 
fibres of the external are directed obliquely downward and in- 
ward, and those of the internal obliquely downward and back- 
ward, so that they cross each other. 

The triangularis stemi is situated within the chest, connecting 
the side of the sternum and sternal extremities of the costal 
cardials with the cartilages of the second, third, fourth, fifth, 
and sixth ribs. The lower fibres of this muscle are continuous 
with the diaphragm. 

j. — The intercostals raise or depressthe ribs, as they act 
from above or below, being thus both inspiratory and expira- 
tory. The triangularis La a muscle of expiration, by drawing 
down the costal 



What are the princi] I the thorax f wii.it Is the office of the 

Intercostal ilium 



100 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMEN". 

The muscles of the abdominal region are nine in number : 

1. Obliquus externus ; this is the external, flat, descending 
muscle ; its fibres arise by fleshy digitations from the eight 
lower ribs, and spread out to a broad aponeurosis, which is 
inserted into the outer part of the crest of the ilium for one- 
half its length, into the anterior superior spine of the ilium, 
spine of the pubis, pectineal line, front of the pubis, and linea 
alba. 

Note. — The lower border of the aponeurosis, between the 
spines of the ilium and pubis, is rounded from being folded 
inward, and forms PowparVs ligament. BimbernaVs ligament is 
that part of the aponeurosis inserted into the pectineal line. 
The linea alba is a white tendinous slip, extending along the 
middle of the abdomen from the ensiform cartilage to the os 
pubis. Externally, on each side of it, are two curved lines, 
extending from the sides of the chest to the pubis, called the 
linece semi-lunares ; these lines are connected with the linea alba 
by several cross lines, usually three or four in number, called 
linece transversa?. Just above the crest of the pubis is a trian- 
gular opening, formed by the separation of the fibres of the 
aponeurosis, called the external abdominal ring. Through this 
ring passes the spermatic cord in the male, and the round liga- 
ment of the uterus in the female; both are invested in their 
passage by a thin fascia, derived from the edges of the ring, 
called inter-columnar, or spermatic fascia. In inguinal hernia, 
the pouch, in projecting through this opening, receives an 
additional covering from this spermatic fascia. 

2. Internal oblique ; called the middle ascending flat muscle. 
It arises from the outer half of Poupart's ligament, from the 
middle two-thirds of the crest of the ilium, and from the spines 
of the lumbar vertebrae ; and is inserted into the pectineal line, 
crest of the pubis, linea alba, and five lower ribs. 

3. Cremaster ; arises from the middle of Poupart's ligament; 
it forms a series of loops upon the spermatic cord, and some 

How many muscles in the abdominal region ? What are the principal 
ones? 



MYOLOGY. 



101 




Fig. 98.— Muscles of the Trunk. 



In Fig. 98 are seen the muscles of the trunk anteriorly. The superficial layer is seen 
on the left side, and the deeper on the right. 1. Pectoralis major. 2. Deltoid. 3. 
Anterior border of the latissimus dorsi. 4. Serrations of the serratus magnus. 5. 
Subclavius of the right side. 6. Pectoralis minor. 7. Coracho-brachialis. 8. Up- 
per part of the biceps, showing its two heads. 9 Coracoid process of the scapula. 
If. Semtaa magnus of the right side. 11. External intercostal. 12. External 
oblique. 13. Its aponeurosis; the median line to the right of this number is the 
linea alba; the flexuous line to the left is the linea semilunaris; the transverse 
lines above and below the number are Che lineae I tan-versa?. 14. Poupart's ligament. 
15. External abdominal ring; the margin above is called the superior or interned 
pillar; the margin below the inferior **T external pillar; the curved intcrcolumnar 
fibres are Been proceeding upward from Ponpart'e ligament to strengthen the ring. 
The numbers 14 and Ifi are situated upon tin fnseialata of the thigh; the Opening 

to the right of 16 i- called §aphenou$, 16. Rectos of the right side. it. Pyramidalie, 

18. Internal oblique. 19. The common tendon of the internal oblique and trans- 
lis descending behind Ponpart'a ligament to the pectineal line. 90. The arch 
formed between the lower curved border of the internal oblique and Poopaft'l 
ligament, beneath which the spermatic cord passes, and hernia occurs. 



102 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

of its fibres are inserted into the tunica vaginalis, the rest into 
the pectineal line of the pubis. 

4. Transversalis ; this is the internal flat muscle; it arises from 
the outer third of Poupart's ligament, internal lip of the crest 
of the ilium, spines and transverse processes of the lumbar ver- 
tebrae, and from the six lower ribs, indigitating with the dia- 
phragm ; inserted into the pectineal line, crest of the pubis and 
linea alba. 

5. Rectus; arises by a flat tendon from the crest of the pubis; 
inserted into the cartilages of the fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs. 

6. Pyramidalis; arises from the crest of the pubis in front of 
the rectus; inserted into the linea alba midway between the 
umbilicus and pubis. 

7. Quadratus lumborum ; arises from the last rib and trans 
verse processes of the four upper lumbar vertebrae ; inserted into 
the crest of the ilium and ilio-lumbar ligament. 

8. Psoas parvus; arises from the tendinous arches and inter- 
vertebral substance of the last dorsal and first lumbar vertebrae ; 
inserted by an expanded tendon into the ilio-pectineal line and 
eminence. 

9. Diaphragm; this forms a muscular partition between the 
cavities of the chest and abdomen. In shape it is somewhat 
conical, and is composed of two portions, called greater and 
lesser muscles. The greater muscle arises from the ensiform car- 
tilage, inner surfaces of the six inferior ribs, and ligamentum 
arcuatum externum and internum; from these points its fibres 
converge to the central tendon, into which they are inserted. 
The lesser muscle arises by two tendons from the bodies of the 
lumbar vertebrae; these tendons form two large fleshy bellies, 
called crura, which ascend and are inserted into the central 
tendon. 

Note. — The ligamentum arcuatum externum is the upper bor- 
der of the anterior lamella of the aponeurosis of the transver- 
salis. The ligamentum arcuatum internum, or proprium, is a 
tendinous arch across the psoas magnus muscle as it emerges 
from the chest. The tendinous centre of the diaphragm is called 
the central tendon. Between the sides of the ensiform cartilage 

What cavities does tlie diaphragm divide ? Of what portions is it composed ? 



MYOLOGY. 



103 



and the cartilages of the adjoining ribs is a triangular space, 
where the muscular fibres of the diaphragm are wanting; this 
space is closed by the peritoneum on the abdominal side, and 
the pleura on the side of the chest. Sometimes, from violenj 
exertion, a portion of the alimentary canal is forced through 
this space, producing what is called phrenic qt diaphragmatic 
hernia. 



I is a >1do view of the muscles of the 
trnuk. 1. Costal regi<n oi the latlssimufl 
dorsi. '2. Serratnfi magnus. 3. Upper part 
of external oblique. 4. Two external Inter- 
costal s. 5. Two internal iiitrrcostals. 6. 
Tranarersaiis. T. Its posterior aponeurosis. 
trior. Lower part of the left 
rectos. 10l Right rectus. 11. The arched 
opening where the spermatic cord passes 
and hernia takes place. 12. The glutens 
maximus. and nu-dius. and tensor vaginae 
fembris mnsclea invested by lascialata. 

There are three openings in the 
diaphragm: one in the centre, for 
the pas-age of the inferior vena 
; an elliptic opening in its 
muscular portion, formed by the 
two crura, for the passage of the 
(Esophagus and pneu mo gastric 
v; and a third, called the 
. formed by a tendinous arch, 
which passes from the tendon of 
one erne to that of the other; be- 
neath this the aorta, thoracic due*, 
and right vena azygos pass. There 
are also small openings in the lesser muscle on each side for 
the great splanchnic \u*rv^<. 

—The oblique muscles flex the thorax on the pelvis; 
either, acting singly, would twist the body to the opposite 
side. Either transversalis will diminish the size of the abdo- 
men, and both constrict its general cavity. The recti and pyra- 




Fia. 99.- 



-AIUSCLEg OP THE TRUNK 

Laterally. 



• there In the diaphragm} What do Iheyn 
inmll I 



104 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



midalis together pull the thorax forward ; the latter alone are 
tensors of the linea alba. The quadratus lumborum draws 
the lower rib downward, and serves to bend the vertebral 
column to one side. The psoas parvus extends the iliac fascia, 
and assists in flexing the back. The diaphragm assists the 
abdominal muscle in expiration. 

All the abdominal muscles are respiratory, and constitute the 
chief forces in the act of expiration. Considering the lungs as 
a bellows, they constitute the handles. They are aided in this 
office by the muscles of the loins and back, and to some extent 
by the upper muscles of the trunk. They compress the cavity 
of the abdomen in all directions, thus aiding the expulsion of 
the contents of the stomach, bowels, gall-ducts, bladder, and 
uterus, and also mucous and irritating substances from the 
bronchia, windpipe, and nose. 

MUSCLES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES. 

1. Sterno-hyoid. 2. Sterno- 
cleidomastoid. 3. Sterno- 
thyroid. 4. Sterno-cleido- 
mastoid. 5. Edge of the 
trapezius. 6. Clavicle. 7. 
Clavicular origin of the 
pectoralis major. 8. Del- 
toid. 9. Fold of pectoralis 
major on the anterior edge 
of the axilla. 10, Middle of 
the pectoralis major. 11. 
Crossing and interlocking 
of fibres of the external ob- 
lique of one side with those 
of the other. 12. Biceps 
flexor cubiti. 13. Teres ma- 
jor. 14. Serratus major an- 
ticus. 15. Superior heads 
of external oblique inter- 
locking with serratus major. 

These are divided by 
anatomists into several 
groups, as they pertain 
to different regions, as 
thoracic f scapular, hum- 
eral y braoliial radial. 

Fig. 100.— Muscles of Thoracic Region. 

What is the ase of the diaphragm ? What are the uses of the abdominal 
muscles ? By what muscles are they aided ? 




MYOLOGY. 



105 



ulnar and palmar, meaning shoulder, arm, fore-arm, waist, hand, 
and fingers. 

In Fig. 100 are represented the principal muscles of the tho- 
racic region, which perform the various motions around the 
shoulder joint, and co-operate in the respiratory function. 

The principal muscles of the scapular region are shown in 
Fig. 101, which is a front view of those of the upper arm. 

Fig. 101.— Front Muscles 
of the Upper Arm. 

1. Coracoid process of the 
scapula (shoulder blade). 
2. Ligament between sca- 
pula aud clavicle (collar- 
bone). 8. Coraco-acromial 
ligament 4. Subscapu- 
lar^. 5. Teres major ; 
vessels pass through the 
triangular space above this 
muscle. 6. Coraco-brach- 
ialis. 7. Biceps. 8. Upper 
end of the radius. Brach- 
ials anticus. 10. Internal 
head of the biceps. 

Fig. 102.— Triceps Muscle. 
1. Its external head. 2. Its 

long, or scapular head. 3. 

Its internal, or short head. 

4. Olecranon process of 

the ulna. 5. Radius. 6. 

Capsular ligament. 

There are only four 
museles of the arm 

(humeral region), the fig. ioi. Fig. 102. 

principal of which are the biceps (two-headed), and the triceps 
(tlnvi -headed), which perform the most important movements 
of the arm upon the shoulder joint. The latter muscle is 
Bhowo in Fig. 102. 

The muscles <>f the brachial region arc twenty in number, 
which are divided by anatomists in four layers, as represented 
in the following engravings: 




VTliat arc the principal muscles, of the chest ? What of the scapular region V 
Of the arm* 



106 



POPULAK PHYSIOLOGY. 





Fig. 103. 



Fia. 104. 



Fig. 103.— Superficial Anterior Later. 

1. Lower part of the biceps muscle, with its tendon. 2. Part of the brachialis an- 
ticus. 3. Part of the triceps. 4. Pronator radii teres. 5. Flexor carpi radialis. 6. 
Palmaris longus. 7. One of the fasciculi of the flexor sublimis digitorum. 8. Flexor 
carpi ulnaris. 9. Palmar fascia. 10. Palmaris brevis. 11. Abductor pollicis. 12. 
One portion of the flexor brevis pollicis. 13. Supinator longus. 14. Extensor ossis 
metacarpi, and extensor primi internodii pollicis, curving around the lower border 
of the fore-arm. 

Fig. 104.— Deep Anterior Layer. 

1. Internal lateral ligament of the elbow joint. 2. Anterior ligament. 3. Orbicular 
ligament of the head of the radius. 4. Flexor profundus digitorum. 5. Flexor 
longus pollicis. 6. Pronator quadratus. 7. Adductor pollicis 8. Dorsal interos- 
seous muscle of the middle finger, and palmar interosseous of the ring finger. 9. 
Dorsal interosseous muscle of the ring finger, and palmar interosseous of the 
little finger. 

What muscles constitute the superficial anterior layer of the fore-arm? 
What the deep anterior laj^er ? 



MYOLOGY, 



107 



In Fig. 104 is represented the deep layer of the muscles of the 
fore- arm. 

In Pig. 105 is Been the superficial layer of the muscles of the 
posterior aspect of the fore-arm. 

Biu\<a\ — The tendons of the flexor and extensor mus- 
cles of the fore arm are provided with small membranous sacs, 
filled with a glairy fluid, which serve as cushions for the tendons 

to play upon. 



Fig. 1 '". Superficial Layer 
posteriorly. 
!. Lower p:irt of the biceps. 2. 
Part of The brachial is amicus. 
3. Lower part ol the triceps in- 
serted into the olecranon. 4. 
Supinator longns. 5. Extensor 
carpi radlalia longior. fi. Ex- 
tensor carpi radialis hrevior. 7. 
Tendons of insertion of these 
muscle*. S. Extensor digitorttm 
communis. 9. Extensor minimi 
di-riti. 10. Extensor carpi ul- 
riari-. 11. Anconeus. 1*2. Part 
of the flexor carpi ulnars. 13. 
Extensor os-is metacarpi and 
extensor primi internorlii, lying 
together. 14. Extensor secundi 
internodii : its tendon is seen 
crossing the two tendons of the 
extensor carpi radialis longior 
and brevier. 15. Posterior an- 
nular litiament The tendons of 
the common extensor are seen 
upon the hack of the hand, and 
their mode of distribution on 
the dorsum of the fiii_ 

106.— Deep Layer Poste- 
riorly. 
r pirt of the humeri!-. 2. 
Olecranon, process of the elbow 
joint. .{. Clna, 4. Ancon 




Fio. 105. 



Fro. 10f>. 



pinator brevi*. rossis metacarpi polHcis. T. Extensor primi Inter- 

nodii poll; indi internodii pollicis. n. Bxtensor Indicia. 10. 

Fir-t dorsal Interosseous ligament. The other three Interoasii are seen between 
the metacarpal bones of their respective fin 

What muscles constitute the Buptrficia] layer posteriorly 1 What the deep 



108 



POPULAK PHYSIOLOGY. 



The advantages of this arrangement are sufficiently obvious, 
considering the exposed situation and rapidity of motion of 
the tendons, and the feeble protection they receive from the 
small quantity of flesh and the integument of the wrist. These 
bursse are situated where the tendons pass beneath the annular 
ligament of the wrist, and on the back of the wrist. 

In Fig, 106 are seen the muscles which constitute the deep 
layer of the fore-arm posteriorly. 

Fig. 107.— Muscles of the Hand. 
1. Annular ligament. 2, 2. Origin and inser- 
tion of the abductor pollicis, the middle 
portion being removed. 3. Flexor ossis 
metacarpi. 4. One portion of the flexor 
brevis pollicis. 5. Its deep portion. 6. 
Adductor pollicis. 7, 7. Lumbricales, 
arising from the deep flexor tendons, on 
which the numbers are pla^ ed, the tendons 
of the flexor subiimis having been remov- 
ed from the palm. 8. One of the ten- 
dons of the deep flexor, passing between 
the two terminal slips of the tendon of 
the flexor subiimis, to reach the last pha- 
lanx. 9. Tendon of the flexor longus pol- 
licis passing between the two portions of 
the flexor brevis to the last phalanx. 10. 
Abductor minimi digiti. 11. Flexor brevis 
minimi digiti ; the edge of the flexor ossis 
metacarpi is seen projecting beyond the 
inner border of the flexor brevis. 12. 
Prominence of the pisiform bone. 13. 
First dorsal interosseous muscle. 




Fig. 107. 



The muscles of the hand produce the varied motions of ab- 
duction, adduction, and flexion, as their names import. 

In addition to the above muscles of the hand, there are four 
muscles of the ulnar region, and three sets of muscles of the 
palmar region, all of which are subservient to the muscles of 
the fingers and thumb. 

Fig. 108 shows the principal muscles of the abdomen and of 
the inguinal canal. 

Some of these muscles constitute the walls of the abdominal 



What uses of the burs,ae about the wrist ? What motions do the muscles 
of the hand produce ? 



MTOl 



100 



cavity, and hence their health and vigor is essential to a proper 
action of the abdominal viscera within. They are also inti- 
mately connected with the respiratory function, hence their 
vigorous action is indispensable to tree and normal breathing. 
At the external and internal abdominal rings (0, 7, 10. 15) are 




Fig. 108.— Abdominal Musi lks and Inguinal Canal. 

1. External oblique muscle. 2. Its aponeurosis. 3. Its tendon slit up and turned back 
to show the canal. 4. Anterior superior spinous process. 5. Poupart's ligament. 
6. External column of external ring. 7. Internal column of external ring. 8. Inter- 
crossing of the tendons of each side. 9. Body of the pubes. 10. Upper boundary 
of the external abdominal rin<r— the line points to the ring. 11, 12. Fascia trans- 
versalis. 1".. Fibres of internal oblique turned up. 14. Fibres of tran^versalis muscle. 
15. Internal ring enlarged for demonstration. Hi. Sartorius. 17. Fascia lata femoris. 
18. Rectus femorie. 1'). Adductor longns. 81. Fascia lata of the opposite thigh. 
2*2. Poiut where the saphena vein enters the femoral. S3. Fascia lata as applied to 
the \ L Insertion of tranaverealie muscle. 85, ~o. Fascia traneversalis. 

27. Ponpart'a ligament turned off from the internal mn<clcs. 28. Trausversalis 
abdominis. 29. Internal oblique. 3<>. Rectus abdominis. 

ii the places where the bowel protrudes in cases of inguinal 
hernia. ting the proper place for applying trusses or 

pressure. 

The principal muscles of the hip are shown in Fig. 109. 

The gluteal muscles are abductors of the thigh, when acting 
from the pelvis as the fixed point ; but when the thigh is fixed, 
they steady and help support the pelvis on the head of the thigh 
bon»\ as in standing; they also assist in moving the leg forward 
in walking. The small gluteal muscle (minimus) rotates the 

What muscles are Intimately associated wfXb the respiratory function? 
Where do tin bowels protrude In Inguinal hernia? 



110 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



limb slightly inward ; the medius and maximus rotate it out- 
ward. The other muscles of the gluteal group are termed ex- 
temal rotators, their office being to rotate the limb outwardly, 
by which the knee and foot are evertea. 

1. External surface of the ilium. 2. Posterior 
surface of the sacrum. 3. Posterior sacro- 
iliac ligaments. 4. Tuberosity of the ischium. 

5. Great or posterior sacro-ischiatic ligament. 

6. Anterior or lesser sacro-ischiatic ligament. 

7. Trochanter major. S. Gluteus minimus. 
9. Pyriiormis. 10. Gemellus superior. 11. 
Obturator interims, parsing out of the lesser 
sacro isclriatic foramen. 12. Gemellus inferior. 
13. Quaclratus femoris. 14. Adductor magnus, 
its upper part. l-\ Vastus externus. 16. Biceps. 
17. Gracilis. 18. Semitendiuosus. 

Fig. 110 shows the principal mus- 
cles of the thigh. 

The tensor vaginae femoris stretch- 
es the fascia lata, rendering it 
tense, and slightly inverting the 
limb; the sartorius bends the leg 
upon the thigh, and the thigh 
Fig. 109. —Deep Gluteal Muscles, upon the pelvis, carrying the leg 
across that of the opposite side — the tailor's sitting position; 
when fixed below, it assists the extensors of the leg in sup- 
porting the trunk. The four remaining muscles extend the leg 
upon the thigh. By their attachment to the patella, which 
acts as a fulcrum, they are advantageously disposed for great 
power When their fixed point is from the tibia they steady 
the thigh upon the leg; and the rectus, by its attachment to 
the pelvis, serves to balance the trunk upon the lower extremity. 
The muscles on the posterior aspect of the thigh are shown in 
Fig. 111. 

The first two are direct flexors, bending the foot upon the leg; 
acting with the tibialis posticus, they direct the foot inward, and 
with the peroneus longus and brevis, outward. They help to 
maintain the flatness of the foot during progression. The 

What motions do the gluteal muscles perform ? What are the principal 
muscles of the thigh ? 




MYOLOGY. 



Ill 





Fig. 110. 



V'.: 




h 



M 



« 



Fig. 111. 



Fig. 112. 



Fig. 110. — Antbbiob Pbxobal Mttsclbs, 

1. Crest of the ilium. 2. Its anterior superior spinous process. 8. Gluteus mediae. 

4. Tensor moris: its insertion into the fascia lata is seen inferiorly. 

9. 7. Vastus externus. 8. Vastus internus. '.'.Patella. lu.HiBcus 

brternus. n. Psoas magnus. IS. Pectineus. 18. Adductor longus. H. Part of the 

adductor magnus. 15. Gracilis. 

Fib. 111. — Postbbxob Femoral Muscles. 
L Gluteus medius. 2. Gluteus maxinos. 8. Vastos external covered in by fascia lata. 

t. Long head of the biceps. - r >. Its short head. 6. Semi-tendinosus. 7. Semi- 

memhr.u)' - - • icilis. 9. Part of the inner border of the adductor magnns. 

-rt'.riut. 11. The popliteal space. 12 Gastrocnemius; Its two heads. 

Pio. 118. Supebfioial Tibial Mr-< : 

: tho outer hamstring. 2. The tendon-, the inner hamstring, 
mius. 5,5. Soleus. 6. Tendo Achillis. 7. Posterior 
tuberosity of Ihi 8. Tendon- of the peroneue longus and brevis, p 

behind the outer ankle. 9. Tendons of the tibialis posticus and flexor longuc 
. into the fool behind the ankle. 

k>r femoral uiii> V - I Posteriori Superficial tibial mill 



112 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



extensor longus digit oruro. and extensor proprius pollicis are 
direct extensors of the toes; they also assist the flexion of the 
entire foot upon the leg. When acting from below they in- 
crease the firmness of the ankle joint. 

Fig. 112 is a representation of the principal muscles of the leg. 

The muscles of the foot are arranged in layers, and are called 
dorsal or plantar, according to their situation aJbove or below. 
The first layer of the muscles of the sole of the foot is shown in 
Fig. 113. 





Fig. 113. 



Fig. 114. 



Fig. 113.— First Later Plaxtar Muscles. 
1. Os calcis. 2. Posterior part of the plantar fascia divided transversely. 3. Abductor 
pollicis. 4. Abductor minimi digiti. 5. Flexor brevis digitorum. 6. Tendon of 
the flexor longus pollicis. 7, 7. Lumbricales. 

Fig. 114.— Plantar Muscles. 
1. Divided edge of the plantar fascia. 2. Musculus acce*sorius. 3. Tendon of the flexor 
longus digitorum. 4. Tendon of the flexor longus pollicis. 5. Flexor brevis pollicis. 
6. Adductor pollicis. 7. Flexor brevis minimi digiti. 8. Transversus pedis. 9. Dorsal 
and planlar interossei. 10. Convex ridge formed by the tendon of the peroneus 
longus in its oblique course across the foot. 

All the muscles of the foot act upon the toes, the action and 
nature and situation of each muscle being expressed by its name. 
The movements of the toes are flexion, extension, adduction, 



What muscles comprise the first plantar layer ? Principal plantar muscles ? 



MYOLOGY. 



113 



and abduction. The groat toe. like the thumb, is provided with 
special muscles for independent aetion. The lumbricales are 
units to the long flexor; and the transversa^ pedis is placed 
across the foot for the purpose of drawing the to together. 

The firm articulation of all the metacarpal bones, and the 
great strength and number of the Ligaments and tendons of the 
Kg. feet, and toes, are admirably adapted for combining power 





Fig. 115. 



Fig, lia. 



Fig. 115.— Deep Plantar Muscle-. 
1. Tendon of tho flexor longnfl pofficis. 2. Tondon of the flexor communis disritornm 
rios. 4, I. Lumbricales. 5. Plexor brevifl dignoram. 
*j. Plexor brevifl pollici.- pedis. 7. plexor >-r.-^ i- minimi digit! p< 

Fig. IV,.— Plantar bmnossn, 
1. Abdnctor tertii. 2. Abductor quarti. 3. Interossei minimi digiti. 

of endurance with facility of motion ; the toes generally have 
four flexors, two extensors, four adductors, and four abductors; 
while the great toe, in addition, has two distinct flexors, two 
Ldnctor, and one abdnctor. 

t are the movements of 111 What are * | Lantar mm 

Plantar ii. 



CHAPTER Vin. 

DIGESTION. 

Having treated of the framework of the body (bones and liga- 
ments), and the moving fibres (muscles), in the preceding chap- 
ters, we are now prepared to consider the individual functions — 
the first in order and most important of which is digestion. 

Digestion comprises all of the processes of nutrition which are 
performed in the alimentary canal. It prepares the food-mate- 
rial for absorption into the circulating system, and in its broad- 
est sense embraces the prehension of food, its mastication by 
the teeth, its admixture with saliva in the mouth, its solution 
and chymification in the stomach, its chylification and absorp- 
tion in the intestines, and the expulsion (defecation) of its waste 
and non-usable matters. 

A view of the whole range of the alimentary canal is pre- 
sented in Fig. 116 — a portion of the oesophagus having been 
removed. The arrows indicate the course of the#ingesta. 

The abdominal region, which contains the principal digestive 
organs, is shown in Fig. 117. It is bounded above by the dia- 
phragm, which forms a septum between it and the thoracic 
cavity (chest), behind by the spinal column, in front and on 
the sides by the abdominal muscles, and below by the pelvic 
bones. 

prehension. 

The manner in which the human being seizes or takes hold 
of his food, has an important bearing on the question of his 
" natural dietetic character." Naturalists agree that his teeth, ^ 
as well as his whole digestive apparatus, belong to the frugivor- 
ous organization, and that normally his appropriate food con- 
sists of the productions of the earth, fruits and grains especially, 
whatever may be said in favor of a k ' mixed diet," because of 
his acquired tastes and abnormal conditions. And the manner 

What processes does digestion comprise ? In what region are the digestive 
organs ? What is prehension ? 

(114) 



DIGESTION. 



115 



in which he is organized to seize his food and convey it io the 
mouth, is another illustration of his frngivorous nature. All 



Fig. 116. 




Fig. 



116.— Thi: Alimentary Canal. 
1. The upper lip, turned off at the 
mouth. 2. Its frcenum. :>. Lower 
lip. turned down. 4. Its freenum. 
5, 5. Inside of the cheeks, covered 
by the lining membrane of the 
mouth. 6. Point6 to the opening 
of Steuo's duct. 7. Roof of the 
mouth. 8. Lateral half arches. 
9. Points to the tonsil. 10. Velum 
pendulum palati. 11. Surface of 
the tongue. 12. Pappillse near its 
point. 13. A portion of the trachea. 
14. (Esophagus 15 Its internal 
surface. l(i. Inside of the stomach. 
17. Its greater extremity or great 
cul-de-sac. 18. Its lesser extremity 
or smaller cul-de-sac. li*. Its leaser 
curvature. 20. Its greater curva- 
ture. 21. Cardiac orifice. 22. Py- 
loric orifice. 23. Upper portion of 
duodenum. 24, 25. Remainder of 
the duodenum. 26. Its valvula? con- 
niventes. 27. Gall bladder. 28. Cys- 
tic duct. 29. Division of hepatic 
ducts in the liver. 30. Hepatic duct. 

31. Ductus communis choledocns. 

32. It- opening into the duodenum. 

33. Pancreatic duct. 34. Its open- 
ing to the duodenum. 35, Upper 
part of the jejunum. 36. Ileum. 37. 
Some of the valvuhe conniventes. 

38. Lower extremity of the ileum. 

39. Ileo colic valve. 40, 41. Coecum. 
42. Appendicular vermiformis. 43, 
44. Ascending colon. 45. Tr.ins\ 
colon. 46. 47. Descending colon. 
48. Sigmoid flexure of the colon. 

40. Upper portion of the rectum. 
50. Its lower extremity. 51. Por- 
tion of the levator aid mnecle. 

5& Anna. 

animals that prey on other animals have claws and tearing 
mething analogous, by which to seize Its food and 

Wha4 .1 ij naturally frogivorons ? How aic predaceoufl 



116 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



divide it into fragments for swallowing. The hands of man, 
so beautifully adapted to plucking the fruits, harvesting the 




Fig. 11? — A binominal Cavitt. 
In Fig. 117 the intestines are mostly removed. L, L. The liver, turned up to show 
its under surface. G. Gall-bladder. P. Pancreas. K, K. Kidneys. S. Spleen. 
A. Descending aorta. Y, V. Ascending vena cava. E. Rectum. B. Bladder. 

What do the hands of man indicate in relation to food ? In relation to car- 
nivora ? In relation to omnivora V 



DIGESTION. 



117 



grains, shelling the seeds and nnts. and digging the roots, are as 
far removed as possible from the carnivora or even the onmivora. 

MASTICATION. 

The existenee of teeth implies the necessity of masticating 
the food before it is swallowed. Even the Infant masticates, 
in the physiological sense, the first meal h takes from its moth- 
er's breast. The object of mastication is the admixture of each 
particle of food with a particle of saliva, and this the infant ac- 




Fig. US.- The Permanent Teeth. 



complish«'< by raking its milk drop by drop. If the infant swal- 

fcoo rapidly, as often happens when fed from tin 1 

bottle, it will either vomit it up or suffer of Indigestion. And 

no person. Lnfi tdolt, can mak*- the least use of food unless 

1 indication of teeth ? ]1>\\ doea the infant masti- 
cate milk t 



118 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

it is thoroughly masticated. This is one of the reasons why 
milk is not a proper article of food for adults, and why any 
dietary consisting largely of broths, soups, mushes, or slop- 
food of any kind, is unwholesome. 

A complete set of the permanent teeth, with their nervous 
connections, is shown in Fig. 118. 

In this illustration the bony matter is represented as care- 
fully cut away to exhibit the roots of the teeth, and the nerves 
which connect them with the brain. 

Nothing conduces more to the preservation of clean, sound, 
early teeth than a large proportion of solid food, eaten slowly. 
Indeed, nothing else can preserve them ; for, like all other or- 
ganic structures, they perish with disuse. There is no other 
reason than abuse or disuse why the teeth should decay before 
the general organization does, than applies equally to the eyes 
or ears, fingers or toes. Were they as much maltreated as are 
the teeth, there would be as many eyeless, earless, fingerless, 
and toeless young men and women in the world as there are 
now toothless ones. 

There is an important lesson in the following paragraph, 
which we copy from ' ' Digestion and Dyspepsia " : 

"The Indians are proverbial for their good teeth. We have 
examined many Indian skulls, and have frequently found the 
teeth worn down to the gums, with not a speck or decayed spot 
to be found on them. Besides, we do not find on Indian teeth 
tartar, or salivary calculus, as is too often the case with civil- 
ized men's. There may be many reasons why the teeth of In- 
dians are in better condition than the white man's. The chief 
one, perhaps, is that they give their teeth ample exercise. If a 
cow is fed on food that requires no mastication, her teeth be- 
come decayed. If she crops the grass with her incisors, and 
grinds it with her molars, they will last her life-time in good con- 
dition ; but let her be put into a stable and fed on still-slops, 
and the teeth at once begin to decay, as also the bony structure 
in which they stand. The Indian eats parched corn. Having no 
grist-mill, he grinds his food with his teeth, and the result is, 

Why are so many persons teethless ? How can teeth be best preserved ? 
For what are Indians proverbial ? 



DIGESTION. 



119 



every tooth is exercised. If we eat porridge, broth, stews, and 
everything else cooked soft, and get no exercise for the teeth, 
they become to ns almost useless ; the gums become unhealthy, 
the teeth decay, and give us a world of trouble. Moreover, 
the Indian sleeps with his mouth shut, breathes through his 
nostrils, and does not draw the cold air rapidly over his teeth. 
This is true of all animals. The canine and feline tribes, that 
pant when they exercise violently, open their mouths and then 
breathe through them ; but they sleep with their mouths shut. 
The celebrated Mr. Catlin, who writes on Indian habits, attrib- 
utes bad teeth to the white man in consequence of sleeping 
with his mouth open.' 7 




Fig. 119.— The Salivary Glands. 

1. The parotid gland, extending from the zygomatic arch of the cheek-hone to the 
anul of the jaw below. & Duct of the parotid gland. 3. The sub-maxillary gland. 
4. Itr duct. 5. Sub-liiigual gland. 



IN SALIVATION. 



The ample provision which is made for mixing the food with 
the Important solvent furnished by the salivary glands is shown 



What relation andnoae t<> normal respiration? H<»w many 

y called ? 



120 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

in Fig. 119, in which all the salivary glands are represented in 
their natural position. 

The situation of the salivary glands — six in number, three on 
each side — shows their important relation to mastication. They 
are excited to action by the muscles of the tongue and jaws in 
the act of mastication. 

The saliva is not a material separated from the blood, for it 
does not exist in the blood, but is formed, or rather transformed, 
from that fluid. All secretions are foririatwe products, to be used 
in the nutritive processes, in contradistinction to excretions, 
which are the debris or waste material to be expelled. Authors 
frequently confound these terms, but they are distinct as are 
supply and waste, or construction and disintegration. 

In the order of nature the salivary secretion is sufficient for 
moistening all the food the system requires ; no animal drinks 
while eating, and it would be better for digestion if human be- 
ings did not. No one who is in good health, and uses only sim- 
ple and unseasoned food, ever experiences thirst while eating. 
It is true, however, that all condiiients and all high-seasoned 
viands provoke thirst and necessitate the use of water. Indi- 
gestible substances also provoke 
thirst by occasioning a waste of the 
fluids of the body. 

In Fig. 120 is represented a single 
lobule of the parotid gland of an in- 
fant. It shows the wonderful pro- 
vision for insalivating the milk in 
which the infant feeds. The lobule 

is injected with mercury and magni- 
Fig. 120.— Lobule of Parotid ^ , ,>„, ... 

Gland fied fifty diameters. 

DEGLUTITION, 

After the food has been properly masticated, it is to be swal- 
lowed. The next process, therefore, is deglutition. And it is 
worth a moment's delay to consider the ample, if not wonderful, 
contrivances for effecting the passage of the food from the' 
mouth to the stomach, without the artificial aid of drink. 

What is the saliva? How are secretions distinguished from excretions? 
What is deglutition ? 





DIGESTION. 121 

On each side of the mouth, at the commencement of the 
■pharynx (back part of the mouth), is a glandular organ, termed 
tonsil, whose office is to furnish a lubricating fluid. This is 
shown in the cut, Fig. 1*21, 8. In addition to these glands, the 
whole mucous surface exhales a moistening and lubricating 
fluid, more refined than any oleaginous matter ever produced 

Fig. 121. — A View of the Roof of the Mouth and 
of the Soft Palate. 

1. The roof of the mouth, bounded by the superior den- 
tal arch. 2. The soft palate. 3. The velum pendu- 
lum palati. 4. The ridges seen on the roof of the 
mouth. 5. The tubercle behind the incisor teeth. C. 
The middle line of the hard palate. 7. Orifices of 
some of the mucous follicles. 8. The tonsil. 9. The 
pharynx. 

by artificial means, that used in sewing 
machines not excepted. This secretion 
is formed in tubes, called mucous fol- 
licles, the orifices of some of which are shown at 7. Persons 
who use very hot drinks and irritating condiments, or strong 
alkalies, sometimes have a thickening of the mucous membrane 
of the oesophagus, which renders deglutition difficult. 

A recent work contains a statement of the physiology of the 
process of Chymification and Chylificatiorr so complete and 
practical that we copy it entire : 

CHYMIFICATION. 

The second stage of digestion, in the processes of the trans- 
formation of the food elements into living structure, is termed 
chymification. This is performed in the stomach. The older 
physiologists regarded digestion in the stomach as analogous to 
fermentation ; modern authors are very discordant in their 
opinions of the nature of the process, some regarding it as 
mainly mechanical, and others as purely chemical. The simple 
truth is. it is a tnioZ process, as are all other processes pertain- 
ro living organisms. 

In the stomach the food is mingled with a solvent, called the 



• i.- the function of the tonsOs? What is the function of the mucous 
b mil throat? What L» chymiflc&tio 



122 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



gastric juice, whose wonderful properties have thus far eluied 
all chemical and microscopical investigations. It is known to 
be slightly acid, and to have a power of transforming organic 
elements unlike that of any other known substance. It is said, 
also, to u digest" inorganic, and even metallic substances, which 
have been purposely or accidentally swallowed ; but this opin- 
ion is certainly an error, for oxidation, or decomposition, which 
is all that can happen to them in the gastric cavity, is a very 
different process from digestion. 

1. The great blood-vessels. 

2. The lungs of each side. 

3. The heart. 4. The dia- 
phragm. 5. Under surface 
of the liver. 6. The gall- 
bladder. 7. Union of the 
cystic and hepatic ducts 
to form the ductus cholc- 
dochus, which empties the 
bile into the duodenum 
immediately below the pit 
of the stomach. 8. Ante 
rior face of the stomach. 
9. The gastro-hepatic, or 
lesser omentum. 10. Gas- 
trocolic, or greater omen- 
tum, cut off to show the 
small intestines. 11. 
Transverse colon, pushed 
a little downwards. 12. Its 
ascending portion, also 
pushed down. 18. Small 
intestines. 14. The sig- 
moid flexure of the colon. 
15. Appendicula vermifor- 
mis. 

A general view of 
the abdominal or- 
gans is represented 
i in Fig. 122. The adi- 
pose matter in the 
chest has been re- 
moved, as has the 
Greater Omentum, 
which covers the vis- 
cera in front. 
The liver also has 
Fig. 122. been turned back to 

exhibit its under surface and the Lesser Omentum. 




What is the office of the gastric juice? How does it affect inorganic 
substances ? 



DIGESTION. 123 

It will be noticed that the stomach is nearly semicircular 
in shape, concave above and toward the liver on the right side, 
convex toward the spleen on the left side, and that its main 
bulk is on the left of the median line. The stomach, heart, and 
spleen are all chiefly on the left side, a provision which seems 
necessary to counterbalance the largest glandular organ of the 
body, the liver, which is situated on the right side. 

A knowledge of this arrangement of the organs enables us to 
understand many of the complicated, and obscure pathologi- 
cal conditions resulting from congestion and enlargement of 
the liver. When congested, its very weight causes a painful, 
dragging sensation in the vicinity of the stomach, and when 
very much enlarged it causes the body to bend to one side, 
especially in young persons, often resulting in double curva- 
ture of the spine. I have known several children who were 
badly incurvated, attended in some instances with partial or 
complete paralysis of one of the lower extremities. And I have 
known such patients treated for months with tonics, shower- 
ing, electricity, ''movements," and some worse things, without 
benefit, and without any suspicion on the part of the attending 
physicians of the real nature of the difficulty. In other cases 
its pressure against the stomach would cause much distress 
in that organ, especially after meals. In still other cases its 
upward pressure against the diaphragm would cause continual 
difficulty of breathing, occasioning short breath, coughing, and 
palpitation, whenever the patient would step hurriedly, or walk 
up-stairs, often resulting in severe asthmatic paroxysms. These 
patients can never be cured, as the reader will readily under- 
stand, until the diseased condition of the liver is properly at- 
tended to. 

The relation of the stomach to the great blood-vessels below 
the heart, enables us to explain many strange and often fright- 
ful sensations with which all dyspeptics are more or less familiar. 

The illustration, Fig. 123, represents the stomach and oesopha- 
gus in their natural position, and shows the proximity of the 
stomach to the descending aorta and other large blood-vessels 
of the abdominal cavity. The thoracic viscera, nearly all of 

On which side are the stomach, heart, and BpleeD F What or^an opposite? 



124 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



the diaphragm, and the intestines, have been removed ; the 
peritoneum (lining membrane of the cavity of the abdomen) 




1. Upper portion of the oesophagus. 2. 
Arch of the aorta. 3. Lower portion of 
the oesophagus. 4. Vertebral column. 5. 
'Vena cava ascendens. 6. Pancreas. 7. The 
cut edge of the diaphragm. 8. Great cul- 
de-sac of the stomach. 9. Cardiac orifice 
of the stomach. 10. Pyloric orifice of the 
stomach. 11. Spleen. 12. The peritoneal 
coat of the stomach partially turned off. 
13. Right kidney. 14. Lower curvature 
of the duodenum. 15. Ascending vena 
cava. 16. Abdominal aorta. 17. A sec- 
tion of the lower bowel (rectum). 



has been detached from the kid- 
neys, and the duodenum is left. 
One of the most distressing 
symptoms of many dyspeptics is 
a hard beating or throbbing be- 
hind the stomach. It is generally 
worse soon after lying down, and 
the throbbing is sometimes so 
violent as to jar the whole body 
and shake the bedstead. Many 
persons in this condition have 
apprehended ' ' organic disease 
of the heart," and not unfre- 
quently their physicians, unable 
to account for these occasional tumults of the central organ of 
the circulation on any other hypothesis, have diagnosticated 
" heart disease." 

A reference to the illustration will make the matter plain 
enough. All dyspeptics have one of four conditions, and many 
all of them. 1. Constipation. 2. Enlargement of the liver. 3. 
A contracted and rigid state of the abdominal muscles. 4. Con- 
gestion of the adjacent organs — lungs, spleen, kidneys, and 
pancreas. Any one condition causes obstruction to the free 
passage of the current of blood down the descending aorta, and 



Fig. 123.- 



-Stomach and Gkeat Blood- 
vessels. 



What are the conditions of dyspepsia? 
the heart and blood-vessels ? 



ymptorns ? How do they affect 



DIGESTION. 



125 



when all co-operate, the effect is extreme. The swollen organs 
and unyielding muscles press the stomach directly against the 
large blood-vessel, so that every contraction of the left ventricle 
of the heart propels a column of blood through the arteries on 
which the stomach presses, not only causing the jarring or 
throbbing sensation, but actually lifting the lower side of the 
stomach to some extent. The effect is exactly analogous to that 
of moderate blows or rappings against the under side of the 
stomach. If the region around the stomach is contracted, as 
is the case with many "confirmed dyspeptics," or "caved in," 
as is the case with all women who have laced tightly in early 
life, this pounding symptom is greatly aggravated. In such 
cases the patient, on retiring to rest and assuming the horizon- 
tal position, will often experience noises in the ears like the 

1. Anterior face of the oeso- 
phagus. 2. The cul-de- 
sac, or greater extremity. 
8. The lesser or pyloric 
extremity. 4. The duode- 
num. 5. A portion of the 
peritoneal coat, turned 
back. ft. A portion of the 
longitudinal fibres of the 
muscular coat. 7. The cir- 
cular fibres of the muscu- 
lar coat. 8. Oblique mus- 
cular fibres. 9. Portion of 
the muscular coat of the 
duodenum, shown by re- 
moving the peritoneal 
coat. 



" sound of many wa- 

Fio. 1:>4.— Front View of the Stomach. ters," Or the rushing 

of a cataract. This symptom is also always worse soon after 
taking a full meal; and if such a person take a "hearty sup- 
per," and retire immediately to bed, his sensations will be 
more forcible than agreeable; and his unquiet slumbers will 
alternate with paroxysms of incubus, preceded by frightful 
etres, fantastic situations, impossible adventures, and all 
goblinfl of air, earth, and sea. 




What symptoms result from OOntf it? When arc those Bjmptomi 

woi> 



126 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

The process of chymification means simply the formation of 
the food material into a homogenous, pulpy mass. For this 
purpose it is mixed with the gastric juice and compressed and 
kneaded by the muscles which constitute the middle coat of 
the stomach. The fibres of this muscular coat are so arranged 
as to do their work admirably, as is shown in the illustration, 
Fig. 124, which represents a front view of the stomach, distended 
with air, the peritoneal coat being turned back. 

It will readily be seen that this arrangement of longitudinal, 
circular, and oblique muscular fibres allows the stomach to 
compress and knead the ingesta in all possible directions, as 
the varied motions of the tongue enable it to move the food in 
the mouth, during mastication, in every direction. 

The active principle, or solvent, of the gastric juice, is evi- 
dently corpuscular, as is, probably, that of all organic secretions. 
Something analogous to this has been obtained from the analy- 
sis of the gastric juice, and termed pepsine; but pepsine in the 
living organism, just as nature produces it, and pepsine out of 
the living organism, as the chemist prepares it, are very differ- 
ent materials, although the latter does produce a solvent effect 
on alimentary substances. But the idea of introducing pepsine 
into the materia medica as a substitute for the gastric juice, 
or as a remedy for indigestion, is as absurd as would be the no- 
tion of preparing our food in such a manner as not to require 
mastication. Indeed, this latter practice is very general, for, 
do not learned physicians tell us, and eminent physiologists 
explain to us, that bread, for example, when made light by fer- 
mentation, can be more readily permeated by the saliva and 
gastric juice? Surely they forget, when treating of dietetics, the 
nature of the physiological function termed mastication. 

The pepsine which is employed as a " digester" in medicine, 
is usually obtained from the stomachs of pigs, by scraping the 
mucous membrane with a blunt instrument. In order to pro- 
duce it in large quantities the animals are kept without food 
until their appetites become keen, and then placed where they 
can smell the food without getting hold of it. The smell of the 
savory viands provokes a flow of gastric juice, or of something 

How is food chymified? What is the solvent principle of gastric juice? 
What is pepsine, natural and artificial ? 



DIGESTION. 127 

analogous, which is then obtained pure, as us supposed, by kill- 
ing the animal. But, as all organic secretions are modified by 

and partake of the dietetic character of the animal, it seems to 
me that the omnivorous swinej always filthy and scrofulous in 
its domesticated condition, is the worst possible source from 
which to obtain pepsine for the human stomach. The peptic 
corpuscles of a scrofulous pig may infect the human being with 
malignant disease, as readily as the vaccine virus from a dis- 
eased animal produces the worst forms of confluent small-pox. 

The corpuscles of the gastric juice are very tenacious of life, 
as are all similar secretions. In rennet, the dried stomach of 
the calf, they may retain their organic properties for years. 
One of the peculiar properties of gastric juice, is that of coag- 
ulating milk. Dr. Pordyce long ago ascertained that six grains 
of the mucous coat of the stomach, infused in water, will 
produce a liquid that will coagulate one hundred ounces of 
milk, or 6,857 times its bulk. 

It has been ascertained that a single drop of gastric juice 
contains not less than half a million of corpuscles, and that 
the quantity necessary for the proper digestion of a single meal 
may be reckoned in figures at not less than one hundred and 
thirty thousand millions ; a number that need not surprise us 
when we recollect that modern scientists have estimated the 
constituent molecules of a drop of water at several billions. 

In a pri on Cheese-making, by S. R. Arnold, of Lan- 

sing, Michigan, published in 1870, the author claims that, in 
the ordinary process of cheese-making, the corpuscles, or cells, 
obtained from rennet, are not destroyed in the cheese, but are 
transferred to the stomachs of those who eat the cheese, and 
may there assist digestion ! 

But this is pushing nature quite out of the universe. If 
cheese, or anything else that contains gastric corpuscles, is nec- 
irv or useful in tin- digestive processes of the human stomach, 
how are tho-e human beings going to digest their victuals who 
have cot cheese or something similar \ And how are the animals 
that never use any pepsine except the home-made article, to get 
aloi ell known to be one of the most indiges- 

WiiMt is rennet! Why is pepsine from the pig objectionable:' JJow 
numerous are gastric corpuscles ! 



128 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

tible articles that was ever swallowed in the name of food ; 
occasioning constipation of the bowels, canker in the mouth, 
dryness of the mucous surfaces, and deficiency in both the 
gastric and salivary secretions. Says the old distich : 

" Cheese is a surly elf, 
Digesting all things hut itself." 

Perhaps Mr. Arnold derived his philosophy from this couplet 
of the muse. But it is not truth, whatever may be said of the 
poetry. It is an unnatural and very unwholesome food ; indeed, 
it is not food at all in the proper sense of the word, though 
containing certain alimentary proximate principles in an al- 
tered and degenerated form. Because cheese is a dry food, 
that is, contains little water, some English medical writers, in 
view of the scarcity and high prices of flesh-food, consequent on 
the "rinderpest," "pleuro-pneumonia," and "rot," among so 
many of the cattle and sheep brought to the London market, 
have recommended cheese as a substitute. They will find a 
much better article of diet in that king of the cereals, wheat, 
provided they know how to cook it hygienically, or in any one 
of twenty grains, fruits, and roots that could be named. 

Another peculiar property of the gastric secretion has been 
called antiseptic. This term is not strictly correct, for antisep- 
tic applies properly only to dead matter. It is true, however, 
that partially decayed vegetables and semi- putrescent flesh, 
lose ail offensive odor soon after coming in contact with the 
gastric juice. But this effect results from the transforming 
power of the solvent, by which the molecular atoms are re- 
arranged and the foetid gases decomposed and dissipated. All 
that an antiseptic can do is to prevent decay by rendering the 
organic elements fixed and unchangeable, as with salt, vinegar, 
alcohol, arsenic, etc. This is why all salted aliments are more 
indigestible and less nutritious than those which are fresh. 

In Fig. 126, the entrance to the secreting follicles are shown, 
in the cells upon the surface of the mucous membrane of the 
stomach. 

The mucous membrane is so completely studded with glands 

Is cheese proper food ? To what does antiseptic apply ? Why are salted 
foods less digestible than fresh ? 



DIGESTION. 



129 




Fig. 185. 
Gastric Glands. 



for the secretion of the gastric juice t iat its surface has a velvety 
or napped appearance, as represented in Pig. 125, which is a 

Hon of the coats of the stomach near the pylorus, showing 
the gastric glands magnified twenty diameters. 

The immediate consequences of a deficient supply of gastric 
juice— a condition that exists with all dyspeptics — are, acidity, 
flatulence, eructations, water-brash, heart-burn, etc. 

After the food has been duly prepared in the 
stomach in the manner we have seen, it is 
passed through the pylorus (lower orifice of 
the stomach) into the duodenum, the first por- 
tion of the small intestines. The pyloric por- 
tion of the stomach and the upper portion of 
the duodenum are liable to become ulcerated, 
Indurated, tuberculated, and even cancerous 
in persons who have much abused their diges- 
tive organs with strong condiments, indigesti- 
ble aliments, alcoholic liquors or other poisons. 

CHYLIFICATIOX. 

In the duodenum the food, now chyme, is 
mingled with the secretion from the mucous 
membrane of the intestine itself, the bile, and 
the pancreatic juice. Pysiologists do not yet 
agree as to the precise offices performed in the 
organic economy by the liver or pancreas. The 
bile is certainly, in part, and probably wholly, 
an excrementitious fluid, or excretion, although 
being of an alkaline nature, it may incidentally 
mingle with the fatty matters of the food, and 
by converting them into a saponaceous mass, 
— ist in their passage or absorption. All 
Fig. i-26. physicians arc familiar with the various phases 

sk<- ketin.. Tuvn. of disease which result from a deficient excre- 
tory action of the liver. Jaundice, rashes, humors, erysipela- 
tous affections, dimness of vision, impaired hearing, and a mul- 
titude of cutaneous eruptions are attributable to •• biliousness." 

deficient ^istric juice? Whit is chyllflcation? 
iltfl fr 'in torpid liver! 




130 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

The following extract from "The Hydropathic Encyclopedia" 
may be pertinent in this place : 

" The liver forms the bile from the venous blood. The object 
of the biliary excretion evidently is to eliminate certain impur- 
ities from the body in the form of compounds of carbon, hydro- 
gen, and nitrogen, and also to deterge the blood of a portion 
of any excess of alkali that may be absorbed by the venous ex- 
tremities. 

"Liebig has fabricated a singularly inconsistent hypothesis, 
which has satisfied himself and all others who are satisfied to 
echo his arguments without taking the trouble to examine them, 
that the bile is a nutritive product, and that, consequently, what- 
ever will tend to the formation of bile, or any of the proximate 
elements usually found in bile, is a useful and nutritive sub- 
stance. Liebig reasons in this wise : The bile is composed of 
several certain proximate elements. One of these is called tern- 
rine. This taurine is the only compound or proximate element 
found in the bile which contains nitrogen. Now theine and 
caffeine, the active principles of tea and coffee, are found, on 
chemical analysis, also to contain a very small quantity of nitro- 
gen ; ergo, tea and coffee, though injurious excitants to the 
nerves, may be useful to the liver by furnishing the nitrogenous 
element of the taurine of the bile. Such reasoning is extremely 
absurd, and the error is a most palpable one. It consists in 
mistaking a waste material for an aliment ; a depurating process 
for a nutritive one. As well might one mistake putrid flesh 
for wholesome food, because it contains carburetted hydrogen, 
which is also found in the foeces, or excrementitious matters 
of the bowels." 

The pancreatic juice, mingling with the oily matters of the 
food, or with the food (and it should be stated here that oily 
matters are never digested nor changed in the stomach), re- 
duces them to the condition of an emulsion, which means, 
dividing the oily particles so minutely that they lose their 
apparent individuality. In this emulsified condition the fat is 
capable of being absorbed and carried into the general circu- 

What is the office of the liver ? What is the error of Liebig ? What is the 
function of pancreatic juice ? 



DIGESTION. 



131 



lation, and. finally, expelled through the various 'emunctories, 
or deposited in the cells of the areolar tissue. 

The spleen, when enlarged and indurated, is what is known 
in popular parlance as " ague cake." Ir is common in malarious 
distiicts after the intermittent fever has been "broken up" by 
large doses of quinine or arsenic. When dyspepsia is complica- 
ted with this condition, the patient is always despondent and 
melancholy, unless the organic or vital temperament exists, 



1. The spleen. 2. Its 
diaphragmatic e x- 

tremift. 3. Its in 
ferior portion. 4. 
The fissure tor its 
vessels. 5. The pan- 
creas. 6. Its head, 
or the lesser pan- 
creas. 7. Duodenum. 
8. Coronary arteries 
of the stomach 9. 
The hepatic artery. 
10. The splenic ar- 
tery. 11. The sple- 
nic vein. 




Fi(i. 1-27.— Pancreas, Spleen, and Duodenum. 



with a very large development of the phrenological organ of 
hopefulness. 

The relation of the pancreas to the spleen on the left side, 
and the duodenum on the right, is shown in Fig. 127. The 
cut represents the organs as viewed anteriorly, with their blood- 
vessels injected. 

INTESTINAL DIGESTION. 

From the commencement of the small intestines to the ter- 
mination of the large ones, the mucous lining of the canal se- 
oretes a fluid which not only smooths the passage of matters 
along its surface, bur aids in the elaboration of the nutrient 
elements. In different portions of the alimentary tract there are 
ial glands, follicles, or other secreting structures, aiding in 
the complex process of converting "pabulum" into living 
uctnres. The small intestines are divided by anatomists into 



Wh.it Is enlargement of the spleen called? What causes produce itl How 
I by temperament f 



132 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, and the large intestines 
into the ccecum, colon, and rectum. A glance at some of the 
more prominent of these special appendages to the digestive 

apparatus will not only 
show how "fearfully and 
wonderfully" we are made, 
but may induce us to have 
a little more compassion on 
our own bowels, if we can- 
not have "bowels of com- 
passion" for others; for it 
is in the long and tortuous 
tract of the intestinal canal 
that the most aggravated 
miseries of a dyspeptic life 
are experienced. Choleras, 
colics, diarrhoeas, worms, 
hemorrhoids, various con- 
cretions, and, worst of all, 
constipation, have their seat 
in the intestinal tube, in ad- 
dition to inflammatory affec- 
tions and structural de- 
rangements, which are com- 
mon to all parts of the sys- 
tem. 

In Fig. 128 is seen a sec- 
tion of the ileum, inverted, 
so as to show the appearance and arrangement of the villi on an 
extended surface, as well as the follicles of Lieberkuhn. The 
follicles are represented by the great number of black points 
between the villi, or projections, and can only be recognized 
by a close inspection. 

A section of the small intestine containing some of Peyer's 
glands, as shown under the microscope, is represented in 
Fig. 129. They secrete a milky fluid with numerous corpuscles 

What are the divisions of the large intestines ? Of the small intestines ? 
Office of Peyer's glands 9 




Fig. 128.— Section of the Ileum. 



INTESTINAL 



133 



of vari< but not bo large as those of (be blood. The 

meshes seen in the folds are the ordinary tripe-like folds of the 

mUCOUS coal. 

era] late pathologists have advanced the theory that an 
inflammation of Peyer's glands in tlm jejunum and ileum is the 
ntial cause of typhoid, or enteric fever, while an inflamma- 
tion of Brunner's glands, in 
the duodenum, is the essen- 
tial cause of typhus or pu- 
trid fever. Bnt thus*' theor- 
bave mistaken effect tor 
cause. Jn some in-tances 
these glands were found 
Inflamed or disorganized 
after death. In other oc 
no such appearances were 
discoverable. If inflamma- 
tion of these glands were 
the cause of these fei 
post-mortem examinations 
should have confirmed it in 
all cs 

The entire number of folli- 
cles in the whole alimentary 
'•anal 1< Ironed by Dr. Horner lal Anatomy and 

Hu y-six millions nine hundred thousand and up- 

ward-." Tl titute the minute anatomy of the mucous 

r, and their most prominent pha represented in the 

four following illusti 

w of tilt- follicles of the colon, magnified one 
hundred and fifteen tin. ate number is estimated 

at nearly ten million 

is a view of cU and follicles of the stomach, 

'ily magnified. About two hundred and twenty-five are 

found on ei hi b of an inch, \\ hich would give 

tie more than a mi I lion and a quarter for the entire stomach. 




¥ig. 129.— P 



. 



134 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



In Fig. 132 are seen the follicles and villi of the jejunum, highly 
magnified. As the villi are erected by the injection, they run 
into each other and press one 
upon another, like the con- 
volutions of the cerebrum. 

The follicles and also the 
villi of the ileum, highly 
magnified, are represented 
in Fig. 133. These villi are 
curved, with their edges bent 
in, or concave. There is, 
however, in the whole ali- 
mentary canal, almost every 
conceivable form and shape. 

It is in the large intestines, 
where the fecal matters are 
liable to accumulate, that the 
most distressing effects of 
indigestion are manifested. 
Admirable as are their struct- 
ural arrangements and irregularly curviform direction for the 
performance of their functions under normal conditions, these 
very circumstances render them liable to become the seat of 
terrible sufferings when obstructed or diseased. This fact may be 
inferred from a glance at the illustration, Fig. 134, which is a 
view of the position and curvatures of the large intestines. 

The large intestines differ from the small in being sacculated, 
an arrangement which favors the retention of the nutrient ma- 
terial which has not yet been taken up by the extremities of the 
veins and the lacteals, until it can be completely absorbed, and 
also facilitates the excretion of fecal matters from the blood. 
But if constipation exist, these sacculations become loaded with 
hardened foeces, and sometimes with other concretions, render- 
ing the patient as miserable as can well be imagined. 

It will be noticed that the contents of the large intestines are 
carried in a circuitous route, and in one place directly upward 



ll§ 




lifts 




WmgSMSBk 


SnkI^ 


Hfe 




iSttS ': , 


S^S^GSn 




!gl| ; 




§»£ 


Mp <a ^feilSw | iBi 


SsEsiil 


B8Ip{S# v ^^J^'t^^ 


tifc 1 ' «fe ^sftfiSflfi 



Fig. 130.— Follicles of the Colon. 



How do the large intestines differ from the small in structural arrange- 
ment? 



INTESTINAL DIGE8TI0N. 



L35 



for ten or twelve inches; thence elctosa th<> abdominal cavity to 
the right .side, thence downward on the l«lt Bide to a j^osition 




Fig. 131.— Follicles or the Stomach. 

below the ileo-ccecal junction; thence through the sigmoid 




Fia. 188. — FOLLKLES OF TIIE JeJTNUM. 



Bexare (a curvature resembling the letter S). and, finally, 
reward again in a straight Line to the out;. 

W), f the contents <<( the large intestines? 



136 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

The careless observer might see, in this extraordinary contri- 
vance, nothing but a useless complication that renders the 
whole organism ever liable to manifold infirmities and prema- 
ture destruction. But a similar mistake has been made with 
regard to the convolutions of the brain. There is neither sim- 
plicity nor symmetry on the encephalic surface, and its irregu- 
lar elevations and depressions seem, to the non-philosophical 
mind, but a promiscuous and useless massing together of brain 
substance. But the physiologist, and especially the phrenolo- 
gist, sees the matter with very different eyes. He perceives the 
use, and then recognizes the beauty of the whole arrangement. 




Fig. 133.— Follicles of the Llectm. 

He has learned that all of this unevenness of surface unfolds 
and spreads out, so to speak, the mental organs, and corre- 
spondingly augments their power. 

The last of the small intestines (ileum) opens into a large sac 
or pouch, which is the portion of the large intestine termed 
ccecum. This is very large in some of the herbivorous animals. 
In the horse it is larger than the stomach. The careful student 
may inquire, for what purpose is the little, tortuous, worm-like 
appendage depending from the lower part of the ccecum ? Well, 

What is the advantage of the convolutions on the surfaces of organs and 
structures ? 



INTESTINAL DIGESTION. 137 

it has no physiological use whatever, and yet, paradoxical as 
it may seem, "nothing is made in vain." Like the little tri- 
jointed bone at the lower extremity of the vertebral column, it 
seems to point a moral. It is the relic of a lower organization, 
1 is the strongest argument, perhaps, that can bo adduced 
in favor of the doctrine of u Evolution." In some of the lower 
animals, which subsist on coarse food and herbage, the beaver, 
for example, the appendicula cwmiformis constitutes another 




9 

Fig. 134.— The Large Intestines. 

1. The end of the ileum. 2. Appendicitis vcnniformis. 3. The coecnm, or capnt etff. 
Ion. 5. Tin descending colon, (i. The sigmoid flexure. 7. 
rment of rectam. 8. The rectum. 9. The anus. The levator-ani muscle 
is shown on each side. 

pouch or stomach, or a prolonged ecaoum. As the food becomes 
ua and concentrated in the ascending scale, the 
append ot needed, and perishes by non-use. If the hu- 

man ra Ion-- enough, and continues to develop in its 



ace in man iodi- 



138 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

cerebro-spinal tissue, the unseemly excrescence will entirely 
disappear. But I do not wish to be understood as interpreting 
' 'Darwinism" so as to inako man the ; ' descendant" of the lower 
organizations. My opinion is that, in the order of progressive 
development, he has ascended above the whole animal kingdom. 

Has man " descended " or ascended from the animals ? 



CHAPTER IX. 

ABSORPTION. 

Absorption means the conveyance of matters of every kind 
into the mass of blood. Nutrient materials are carried into the 
blood, to be distributed to all parts of the body, for purposes of 
growth and reparation ; and noxious matters are carried into the 
blood to be expelled through the various excretory organs. Ab- 
sorption is performed by three sets of vessels: lymphatics, lac- 
teals, and veins. 

LYMPHATIC ABSORPTION. 

The lymphatic system is composed of a net-work of absorbent 
vessels, originating in all parts of the viscera and areolar struc- 
tures and tissues, and terminating in the receptacnlum cJtyli, the 
centre of the absorbent system. On their way to the central 
rvoir they are formed into various convolutions termed 
glands, whose office is to effect some change or elaboration of 
the contents of the vessels before they enter the circulation. 
Fig. 135 presents a general view of the lymphatic system. 

The lymphatic- arc especially the agents of interned absorp- 
tion, while the chyliferous v. ssels and the extremities of the 
veins are the agents of external absorption. 

The contents of the lymphatic vessels (lymph) consist of a 
transparent fluid which is slightly alkaline, of a saline taste, 
I sometimes of a yellowish or madder-red color. As it con- 
tain.- both nutrient material and more or Less effete matter, with 
whatever noxious or foreign materials may he incidentally pres- 
ent, its properties vary in different parts of the system. It con- 
tain- oorpnscles or globules suspended in a watery fluid, and, 
when out of it- and undisturbed, coagulates, as does 

tie* Mood. In the thoracic duct the Lymph mingles with the 
chyle, and is thru poured into the great veins uear the heart. 

What ptlon? Bow many kinds of absorbent ?< 

are there? What is the nature of lymph f What la the center of the absorb- 
ent system I 



140 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 




Fig. 135.-— Lymphatic System. 



ABSORPTION. 



141 



LACTEAL ABSORPTION. 



External absorption includes that which takes place from the 
skin and from the mucous membranes. The lacteal vessels com- 
mence by villi or follicles (crypts, mouths) in the mucous sur- 



Fig. 136 exhibits the course and termination of the 
thoracic duct. 1. Arch of the aorta. 2. Thoracic 
aorta. 3. Abdominal aorta and its br nches. 4. 
Arteria innominate, dividing into right carotid and 
right subclavian. 5. Left carotid. 6. Left subcla- 
vian. 7. Superior cava, formed by the union of 8, 
the vense innominate, and then by the junction (9) 
of the internal jugular and subclavian at each side. 
10. Greater azygos vein. 11. Termination of the 
lesser azygos in the greater. 12. Receptaculnm 
chyli ; several lymphatic trunks are seen opening 
into it. 13. Thoracic duct, divided opposite the 
middle of the dorsal vertebrae into two branches, 
which soon reunite ; the course of the duct behind 
the arch of the aorta and left subclavian artery 
is shown by a dotted line. 14. The duct, making 
its turn at the root of the neck, and receiving 
several lymphatic trunks before terminating in 
the venous circulation. 15. Termination of the 
trunk of the right lymphatic duct. 





Fio. 136.— Ltmphatic Centre. 



Fig. 137.— Lacteal Origin. 



face of the small intestines, each tube beginning in a single vil- 
lus or closed extremity; the trunk arising from each villus is 



What is understood by external absorption? How do the lacteal vessels 
commence f 



142 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



formed by the confluence of a number of smaller branches, 
which anastomose freely w»th each other in the form of loops, 
an:l never commencing in open extremities. This arrangement 
is represented in Pig. 137. 

I seems to be the special office of the lacteal absorbents to 
take up the oleaginous and viscid matters of the ingesta; hence 
their contents are of a milky color arid consistence. The man- 
ner in which lacteal absorption is performed is one of the ob- 
scure problems in physiology, as the vessels seem, unlike the 
lymphatics and venous extremities, to exercise a selective pow- 
er to some extent — readily taking up some materials and re- 
jecting others. The following diagrams (Figs. 138 and 139) are 
intended to represent what is known on the subject. 




Fig. 138.— Chylification. 



Fig. 139.— Lymphatic Absorption. 



Fig. 138 is a diagram of the mucous membrane during digestion and the prepara- 
tion of chyle, a. A villus, turgid and erect ; its protective epithelium cast off from 
its free extremity ; its absorbent vessels, lacteals, and blood-vessels turgid, b. A 
follicle discharging its epithelial cells. 

Fig. 139 is a repreeentation of the same mucous membrane when chylification is not 
going on. a. Protective epithelium of a villus, b. Secreting epithelium of a follicle* 
c, c, c. Primary membrane, with its germinal spots, or nuclei, d, d. e. Germs of absorb 
ent vesicles. /. Vessels and lacteals of villus. 

The loops of the lacteal vessels are embedded in a mass of 
cells at the extremity of each villus; these cells, when full, yield 
their contents to the vessels, either by a process of deliquescence 
or bursting, their place being supplied by fresh cells; and so 



What is the special office of the lacteals? 
lymphatics and venous extremities ? 



How do lacteals differ from 



ABSORPTION. i4g 

the process IS continued until the nutritive material is ex- 
hausted: after which the -villi, previously turgid, become flac- 
cid, and the epithelium, which was removed during the process 
of absorption, is renewed; the lacteal vessels then become the 

interstitial absorbent vessels of the alimentary canal, and per- 
form the office of ordinary lymphatics. 

The milky color of the chyle depends on the presence of min- 
ute corpuscles, termed chyle globules. The chyle contains fatty, 
albuminous, fibrinous and saline matters, in varying quantities, 
according to the food. 

Fig. 140 is a beautiful representation of the chyle-carriers. 




Fig. 140.— Lymphatics of Jejunum and Mesentery. 

Fie. 14;). 1. Section of the jejunum. 2. Section of the mesentery. 3. Branch of the 
ric artery. 4. Branch of the superior mesenteric vein. 5. Mes- 
GBterl Lng the lymphatics of the intestines. 

They are represented as injected, as are also the arteries of the 
jejunum and mesentery. 

The structure and arrangement of the mesenteric glands are 
better shown in Fig. I U. which is a view of the lymphatics as 

they appeared in a cadaver after death of abdominal dropsy. 

vi;xors ABSORPTION. 

The extremities of the veins are the principal absorbents for 
taking up the really effete matters of the system — the debris of 

On what tloefl the milky color of tin- chyle depend? What is the coinpo- 

6iti-»n ..f . j 



144 POPULAE PHYSIOLOGY. 

the disorganized structures — as well as the accidental impurities 
of the body. The lymphatics, however, take up excrementi- 
tious matters, as bile, pus, etc. 

Most of the nutrient material of the food is carried directly 
into the circulation by the venous extremities from the stom- 
ach and intestines. And as the veins exercise little or no dis- 




Fi«. 141.— Mesenteric Glands. 

Fig. 141. 1. Thoracic duct. 2, Section of the aorta. 3. Glands around the aorta 
which receive the lymphatics from the intestine and give off vessels to the throacic 
duct. 4. Superficial lymphatics on the intestine. 5, 5. More lymphatic glands re- 
ceiving vessels from the intestine. 6, 7. Lymphatics from the intestine and mesentery 

crimination or " selective affinity," poisons find a ready access 
to the blood if taken into the stomach. 

Absorption from the skin has been termed accidental, because 
the fluids are said to pass by imbibition. The rapidity of this 
kind of absorption is mainly influenced by the condition of the 
blood-vessels, being most active when they are most empty. 

When the epidermis is removed, as by a burn or a blister, the 
external integument absorbs with great rapidity. 

The process of imbibition, however, only applies to the pas- 

What is understood by accidental absorption ? What circumstances influ- 
ence accidental absorption ? 



INTESTINAL DIGESTION. 1_!5 

sage of fluids through the epidermis; that Is, between the scales 
of the scarf-skin or cuticle. In contact with the true skin, mat- 
ters are absorbed both by the lymphatics and extremities of the 
veins. 

The whole function of absorption is clearly summarized in the 
' ' Hydropathic Encyclopedia " : 

"The venous extremities, acting as absorbent vessels, take up 
the greater portion of useless, injurious, or worn-out matters ; 
the lymphatic vessels return the unused or surplus recrementi- 
tious matters, and also serve as auxiliary vessels, or special pro- 
visions to guard against obstructions when the functions of the 
veins are overtasked or imperfectly performed. The elements 
of the blood in the capillary system are exhaled through the 
coats of the vessels, and there undergo certain chemico-vital 
changes. Such elements as are needed to repair the waste, and 
build up the structures of the body, are assimilated and be- 
come a component part of the body; other elements are sepa- 
rated, and so re-combined as to form the secretions, and waste 
particles are carried back into the circulation, to be changed or 
thrown off. 

If the processes of alimentation and exhalation overdo those 
of absorption and depuration, accumulation takes place in the 
cellular membrane or serous cavities, of adipose or watery mat- 
ter, and obstruction exists in the form of corpulency or dropsy. 
Hence obesity is as truly an abnormal or diseased state as 
dropsy. 

What do the venous extremeties absorb ? What is the special function of 
the lymphatic vessels ? 



CHAPTER X. 

RESPIRATION. ; 

The inspiration of atmospheric air into the lungs, and its 
expiration therefrom, constitutes the function of respiration. 
The lungs, which occupy the cavity of the chest on each side 
of the heart (Fig. 142), are two conical-shaped organs, sep- 




Fig. 142.— Heart and Lungs. 

Fig. 142 represents the anterior aspect of the anatomy of the heart and lungs. 1. 
Right ventricle; the vessels to the left of the numher are the middle coronary- 
artery and veins. 2. Left ventricle. 3. Right auricle. 4. Left auricle. 5. Pul- 
monary artery. 6. Right pulmonary artery. 7. Left pulmonary a tery, 8. Remains 
of the ductus arteriosus. 9. Aortic arch. 10 Superior cava. 11. Arteria innomin- 
ata ; in front of it is the right vena innominata. 12. Right subclavian vein; 
behind it is its corresponding artery 13. Right common carotid artery and vein. 
14. Left vena innominata. 15. Left carotid artery and vein. 16. Left subclavian 
artery and vein. 17. Trachea. 18. Right bronchus. 19. Left bronchus. 20, 20 Pul- 
monary veins; 18, 20, from the root of the right lung; and 7, 19, 20, the root of the 
left. 21. Upper lobe of right lung. 22. Its middle lobe. 23. Its inferior lobe. 
24. Superior lobe of left lung. 25. Its lower lobe. 

What is meant by the function of respiration ? How are the lungs situated 
in the chest ? 



RESPIRATION. IJ/f 

arated from the heart by a membranous partition, the midias- 
tfniun. They extend upward beyond the level of the first rib, 
and downward to the convex surface of the diaphragm, on 
which they rest. 

The relation which the lungs occupy anatomically to the 
stomach, liver, and, indeed, to the whole vital system (Fig. 
143). shows the importance to health of a fully-developed and 
unrestricted play of the breathing apparatus, and the irre- 
parable injury that must necessarily result from all causes 
that impede its motions. 

The structure of the lungs is composed of ramifications of the 
bronchial tubes, terminating in intercellular passages and air- 
cells, and the ramifications of the pulmonary artery and vein, 
bronchial arteries and veins, lymphatics and nerves, the whole 
connected together by areolar tissue. 

The number of respirations in a healthy adult average fifteen 
to eighteen per minute, being about one-fourth as rapid as 
the pulsations of the heart. About one pint of air enters the 
lungs at each inspiration. Pure atmospheric air consists of 
about twenty-three parts of oxygen mixed, but not chemically, 
united with seventy-seven parts of nitrogen. The air we 
ordinarily breathe contains about one-fourth of one per 
cent, of carbonic acid gas, and a small proportion of ammonia, 
averaging about one-fourth of a grain to about twenty thou- 
sand cubic inches of air. Other gaseous matters occasionally 
exist as accidental impurities. 

Respiration is the special process by which the blood is 
freed of its effete carbon — purified or decarbonized ; hence, 
when the breathing is arrested for a moment, there is a livid 
discoloration of the surface and a sense of suffocation, due 
to the accumulated carbon. Consumptives, whose lungs are 
rructed with tubercles, suffer more or less of these symptoms; 
and young ladies who restrict the motions of the chest by 
tight-lacing are destroying themselves suicidally. 

Tli" air expired from the lungs contains sixteen parte in one 
hundred less of oxygen than the air Inspired, while it has 

Whu* icture "f t 1 j » - Longs? Of what is atmospheric air composed? 

How does respiration affeel the blood? 



148 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



gained about fourteen per cent- of carbon; the nitrogen is 
sometimes increased and sometimes diminished by respira- 
tion, while at other times its quantity remains unchanged. 

It is not known that oxygen 
is used in any manner in 
the organic economy, ex- 
cept as a disintegrating 
agent ; but there are reasons 
for presuming that it may 
also serve as a carrier for 
vitalizing elements more 
subtle and refined than our 
senses, aided by micro- 
scopes, can take cognizance 
of, except in their effects — 
1 just as water is a carrier 
% of blood-cupuscles and the 
nutrient elements of food. 

A. Heart. B, B. Lungs. C. Liver. 
D. Stomach. E. Spleen, m, m. Kid- 
neys, g. Bladder, d. is the dia- 
phragm which forms the partition 
between the thorax and abdomen. 
Under the latter is the cardiac orifice 
of the stomach, and at the right ex- 
tremity, or pit of the stomach, is the 
pyloric orifice. 

Aquatic animals breathe 
by means of gills, which are 
membranes prolonged ex- 
ternally into tufts or 
fringes, through which the 
aeration of the blood is ef- 
ected. Insects have a series 
Fig. 143,-Vital System. of tubeg ra mifying through 

the whole body, and carrying air to the blood of every part. 

In the human lung the sides or walls of the air-cells are 
constituted of a thin transparent membrane, and the capillary 




What relations have carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen to respiration ? How do 
aquatic animals breathe ? 



LA HON. 



140 



Is are situated between the walls of two adjacent cells, so 
as to be exposed to the action of the air on both sides. 
The number of the air-cells of the lungs have been estimated 
at six hundred millions. 

Fig. 144 represents the bronchial tube, and its division into 
air-cells, greatly magnified. 

The capacity of the lungs varies greatly in different individ- 
uals. M. Bourgery concludes from his inquiries that the de- 




Fig. 114.— Bronchial Tube Air Vesicles. 

1. A bronchial tube. 2, -2, 8, Air-cells or vesicles. 3. 4. Abronchial tnbe and vesicles 
laid open. 

velopment of the air cells continues up to the age of thirty, 
at which time the respiratory capacity is greatest. According 
to the experiments of Mr. Coathupe, about 2S§k cubic feet of air 
pass through the lungs of a middle-sized man in twenty-four 
hours. At the average number of sixteen inspirations per 
minute, the amount of air received at each inspiration would 
be twenty cubic inches. Mr. Hutchinson judges the capacity 
of the lungs by "the quantity of air which an individual can 
force out of the chest by the greatest voluntary expiration 
after the greatest voluntary inspiration." Dr. Southwood 
Smith, from a series of experiments, estimates the volume of 
air received at an ordinary inspiration at one pint, the volume 
ordinarily present in the lungs at about twelve pints, and the 
volume expelled at an ordinary expiration at a little less than 
a pint. He also concludes that in the mutual action which 
os place between the air and blood, the air Loses thirty-seven 
ounee8 of oxygen and the blood fourteen ounces of carbon every 

How arc human air tituied? I T <> \v much air is received at each 

inspiration ? 



150 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



twenty-four hours. The lightness of the lungs depends on the re- 
siduary air they contain, and when the lungs have been once 
inflated by a full inspiration, no force or mechanical power can 
again dislodge the air sufficiently to make them sink in water. 
It is this residuary air which supports life a few minutes in cases 
of suffocation, immersion, etc. 

The movements of the respiratory apparatus are partly vol- 
untary, for the purposes of being subservient to voice and 
speech, and partly involuntary, for the purposes of aeration. 
The lungs themselves are entirely passive in respiration. When 
the walls of the chest are drawn asunder, and the thorax dilated, 
the external air rushes in to the air cells, distending them in 
proportion to the dilatation of the thorax, and keeping the sur- 
face of the lungs all the while accu- 
rately in contact with the walls of 
the chest in all their movements. But 
if air be admitted into the-cavity of 
the pleura outside of the lungs, as by 
a penetrating wound of the thorax, 

Fig. 145 is a side view of the chest and abdomen 
in respiration. 1. Cavity of the chest. 2. Cavity 
of the abdomen. 3. Line of diretion for the 
diaphragm when relaxed in expiration. 4. Line 
of direction when contracted in inspiration. 
5, 6. Position of the front walls of the chest and 
abdomen in inspiration. T, 8. Their position in 
expiration. 

the lungs cannot be fully distended 
by inspiration, but will remain par- 
tially collapsed, although the thorax 
expands, because the pressure of air 
from without the air cells balances 
145.— Action of the Diaphragm that within. 

The diaphragm, by extending the ribs, and pressing down the 
abdominal viscera, is the principal agent in inspiration ; in a 
deep inspiration the intercostal muscles assist in the expansion 
of the chest by spreading the ribs, aided also, to some extent, by 




On what does the lightness of the lungs depend ? 
of the respiratory apparatus ? 



What are the movements 



RESPIRATION. 151 

the muscles of the thorax generally. Expiration is mainly ac- 
complished by the abdominal muscles, whose contraction draws 

down the ribs and compresses the viscera up against the relaxed 
diaphragm, thus diminishing the cavity of the thorax from 
below. 

The connection of the respiratory function with sensibility, or 
the sense of feeling, is an interesting and as yet almost un- 
occupied field of inquiry. According to the experience of drown- 
ing persons — those who have remained from one to several 
minutes under water without breathing, and afterward been 
resuscitated — there is no pain after the complete suspension of 
respiration. Although intellectual consciousness remains, and 
mental conceptions are greatly exalted and intensified, all 
sensations of mere bodily suffering are absent. The anes- 
thetic effects of ether and chloroform appear to bear a close 
relation to the extent to which the breathing is suspended. A 
complete unconsciousness to pain is attended with an ex- 
tremely feeble and sometimes almost imperceptible respiration. 

How is expiration accomplished ? What is the relation of respiration to 
esnsibilitj ? 



CHAPTER XI. 

CIRCULATION. 

The circulating system comprises the heart, arteries, veins, 
and capillary vessels. The heart is the central organ of the 
circulation ; it is not essential to the circulation, for some of the 
lower animals do not have it. Its office is doubtless to regulate 
the distribution of blood. The arteries convey the pure blood 
to all parts of the body from the heart. The veins return the 
impure blood from all parts of the body to the heart. The 
capillaries are fine, hair-like tubes, intermediate between the 
arteries and veins, and contain the common or mixed blood of 
the system. 

The course of the circulation is as follows: commencing at 
the heart, as the central point of the circulating system, the 
blood is received from all parts of the venous system into the 
right auricle of the heart; the auricle, contracting, forces the 
blood into the right ventricle ; the ventricle, contracting, sends 
the blood into the pulmonary artery ; this artery divides into 
branches, which are ramified through the substance of the 
lungs, thus bringing the blood in contact with the millions of 
air-cells, where aeration takes place, changing the blood from 
venous to arterial; the blood thus purified is returned through 
the pulmonary veins to the left auricle of the heart ; from the 
left auricle it is passed into the left ventricle; thence into the 
aorta, which, dividing and sub-dividing into smaller arteries, 
conveys the pure or arterial blood to all parts of the body. 

The general structure of the heart is an arrangement of 
strong muscular fibres disposed in layers, so as to form fibrous 
bands and rings, thus affording the greatest possible amount of 
strength for bulk. 

The blood, when removed from its circulating channels, soon 
separates into a thick portion called crassamentum, or clot, and 

What does the circulating system comprise ? What is the course of the 
circulation ? 



CIRCULATION. 



153 



a serous or water?/ portion, the former consisting of its con- 
densed or coagulated solid constituents, and the latter composed 
principally of water and various saline substances in solution. 




Fig. 14G.— Anatomy of the Heart. 

Fig. 146 is a general view of the internal structure of the heart. 1. Right auricle. 
2. Entrance of the superior cava. 3. Entrance of the inferior cava. 4 Opening of 
the coronary vein, half-closed by the valve. 5. Eustachian valve. 6. Fossa ovalis, 
surrounded by the annulus ovalis. 7. Tuberculum Loweri. 8. Musculi pectinati in 
the appendix auricula?. 9. Auriculo ventricular opening. 10. Cavity of right ven- 
tricle. 11. Tricuspid valve, attached by the chorda? tendina? to the carnea? colurnnae 
(1-2). 13. The pulmonary artery, guarded at its commencement by three semi- 
lunar valves. 14. Right pulmonary artery, passing beneath the arch and behind 
the ascending aorta. 15 Left pulmonary artery, crossing in front of the descend- 
ing aorta. * Remains of the ductus anteriosus, acting as a ligament between 
the pulmonary artery and arch of the aorta. The arrows mark the course of the 
venous blood through the right side of the heart. 16. Left auricle. 17. Openings 
of the fourth pulmonary veins. 18. Auriculo-ventricular opening. 19. Left ventri- 
cle. 20. Mitral valve, attached by its chorda? tendina? to two large columnae carnea?, 
which project from the walls of the ventricle. 21. Commencement and course of the 
ascending aorta behind the pulmonary artery, marked by an arrow ; the entrance 
of the vessels is guarded by three semi-lunar valves. 22. Arch of the aorta. The 
comparative thickness of the two ventricles is shown in the diagram. The course 
of the blood through the left side of the heart is denoted by arrows. 

The whole quantity of blood is usually about one-fifth of the 
entire weight of the body. The whole quantity of blood passes 
through the heart every five minutes or less. 



What is the usual quantity of blood? 
tin- l.-art? 



How often docs it all pass through 



154 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



The frequency of the heart's contractions, commonly called 
the beats of the pulse, gradually diminish from the commence- 
ment to the end of life. The average frequency immediately 
after birth is 120 to 130; in middle life, 65 to 75, and in old age, 
65 to 50. 

The auricles and ventricles of the heart contract alternately ; 
the two auricles contracting simultaneously, as do the two ven- 
tricles. The contraction of each cavity of the heart is called 




Fig. 147.— The Heart. 

Fig. 147 is an external view of the heart, a. Left ventricle, b. Right ventricle, c, 0, 
/. Aorta arising from the left ventricle, g. Arteria innominata. h. Left subclavian 
artery, i. Left carotid, k. Pulmonary artery. /, I. Its right and left branches, ra, 
771. Veins of the lungs, n. Eight auricle, o. Ascending cava. q. Descending cava. 
r. Left anricle. s. Left coronary artery. P. Portal veins, which return the blood 
from the liver and bowels. 

its systole, and the relaxation which follows, its diastole. The 
contraction (systole) of the heart's cavities propels the blood 



What is the frequency of the heart's contractions at different periods of 
life ? What is its Systole ? Diastole ? 



CIRCULATION. 



155 



into the arteries, causing the jet-like motion, or beating, of the 
artery which constitutes the pulse. 

The apex of the heart being near the walls of the chest, be- 
hind the fifth and sixth ribs of the left side, produces a decided 
shock or jarring sensation, increased on violent exercise. This 
is called the impulse of the heart. 

The sounds produced by the heart's action can be readily 
detected by placing the ear on the front part of the chest. Two 
sounds will be distinctly recognized, following each other in 
rapid succession. The first sound is more prolonged, and cor- 
responds to the contraction of the ventricles, the pulsation of 
the arteries, and the impulse against the walls of the chest. 
The second sound is only half as long, much weaker, and cor- 
responds to the dilatation of the ventricles and contraction of 
the auricles. 




Fig. 14*.— Corpuscles op the Blood. 
In Fig. 1 1^. A represents the l»lood-corpu>clc8 as seen on their flat surface and edge. 
B. Congeries of blood corpuscles in columns. In coagulating, the corpuscles apply 
themselves to each other, so as to resemble piles of money. 

The capillary vessels age a net work of extremely minute ves- 



What Ifl meant by Impulse of the heart? How are its sounds produced? 
Wluv illai y vessels? 



156 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

sels. The capillary vascular structure exists in all organic tex- 
tures and organs ; indeed, all of the functional processes — secre- 
tion, excretion, assimilation, and disintegration — are performed 
in these microscopic tubes. Their diameter has been estimated 
at from 1-1000 to 1-5000 of an inch. 

The area of the whole capillary system is much greater than 
that of the arteries and veins, hence the blood in them moves 
much more slowly. In its passage through the capillary vessels 
the blood loses much of its nutrient and life- sustaining proper- 
ties, and becomes charged with the impurities and waste mat- 
ters of the system, thus changing the vital fluid from arterial 
to venous — the very opposite of what happens in the lungs. 

The motive power of the circulation is still a disputed pro- 
blem with the physiologists, and various theories are entertain- 
ed on the subject. The probability is, however, that the same 
motive power that moves the planets in their spheres, causes 
the blood to circulate — heat. The arrest of motion induced by 
friction in all parts of the body, converts motion into heat ; the 
heat expands water into vapor, which augments its volume 
nearly fifteen hundred times. This production of vapor makes 
a force that must move the blood in some direction or explode 
the vessels. The valves of the heart and veins prevent its re- 

j± -x Fig. 149 represents the anastomoses of the 

@w) ^^k B blood-vessels which form the capillaries, as 

• /j\ $ z Srf$&$k seen * n the we ^ of a fr °g' s foot ^y tne aid 

W\ ^^IfflP of the microscope. 1, 1. The veins. 2, 2, 

1 V2i? ^K 2. The arteries. 

(BSh &&k trograde motion, and so it moves 

" • . ™ of necessity in the direction of the 

Fm. 149.-THE. Capillar System. arterieg< The heat thus generated 

and used, is reconverted into motion by respiration and 
radiation. 

The coagulation of the blood out of the body affords a good 
illustration of one of the primary laws of organic as contra- 
distinguished from inorganic, matter — the law by which the 
molecules, or atoms, are arranged in the building of living tis- 
eues, as represented in the cut. 

What is the motive power of the heart? What does coagulation of the 
blood illustrate ? 



CIRCULATION. 157 

Though the blood is the immediate source from which all the 
tissues, structures, and organs are nourished, some structures 
— as the tendons, ligaments, cartilages, etc. — do not contain red 
blood. The coloring matter of the blood, therefore, has no re- 
lation to nutrition; indeed, there is reason to believe that the 
whiti corpuscles of the blood are the only vitalized and nutrient 
elements, the red corpuscles being really dead and waste 
matter. 

The following table shows, at a glance, the constituents of 
human blood in living and dead bodies : 

(Fibrin. ) 
Living Blood ' AlDlimeri > ^" m solution, forming Liquor Sanguinis. 

(^Corpuscles— Suspended in Liquor Sanguinis. 

f CnriW* !■ Crassamentum, or clot. 
Dead Blood. \ c ™ ? »"• 

LSait< f Iu sollltiou i forming serum. 

What relation has the coloring matter of the blood to nutrition ? What re- 
lation has the white corpuscles ? 



CHAPTER XII. 

SECRETION" AND EXCRETION. 

The terms secretion and excretion are often employed inter- 
changeably, even in medical books ; but this is certainly a 
misuse of language. The words represent vital processes as 
distinct and as opposite as do the terms, assimilation and disin- 
tegration. Secretions are fluids produced from the elements of 
the blood for use in forming the structures from the food- 
material ; whereas excretions are effete or waste matters result- 
ing from the disorganization of the living structures. 

The Secretions are the saliva, produced by the salivary 
glands; the gastric-juice, furnished by the mucous coat of 
the stomach; the pancreatic-juice, formed by the pancreas, 
and the sero-mucus (I introduce this term because medical 
technology does not furnish any term), produced on the sur- 
faces of all serous and mucous membranes — the serous 
membranes lining all closed cavities, as those of the chest, 
abdomen, and joints, and the mucous membranes lining all 
canals and cavities which open externally, or lead to such 
opening. 

A fluid analogous to, if not identical with, the sero-mucus 
secretion, is also produced by innumerable glands and follicles 
distributed along the course of membranous surfaces, and 
more numerously aggregated and enlarged wherever increased 
or special functional duty is required, and also at or near 
all the inlets and outlets of the body. 

The spleen, thymus and thyroid glands, and supra-renal 
capsules (whose functions the physiologists do not profess to 
understand), are probably, in one sense, secreting organs. They 
have no canal or duct through which any formative fluid can 
be conveyed, but may be appendages to the nutritive organs, 
and furnish to the organic nervous system an additional 

How do secretions and excretions differ ? How many secretions are there ? 
What are they ? 



SECRETION AND EXCRETION. 159 

supply of nervous influence, whatever that may be. Be this 
suggestion correct or otherwise, all the known data of anatomy 
and physiology, and all the phenomena of pathology, accord 
with the theory. 

There are three kinds of secreting and excreting structures. 
The simplest kind is that of the membrane, which is abun" 
dantly supplied with vessels and nerves, and covered with an 
epithelium (a structure resembling the scarf-skin, or cuticle, but 
much more delicate), as the serous and synovial membranes; 
another kind is that of the follicle, which is formed by the 
depression or inversion of the membrane ; the third kind is that 
of the gland, which is an aggregation of follicles. If the 
follicles which constitute the gland are more and more con- 
voluted and complicated in structural arrangement, it is 
termed conglobate or conglomerate, the simplest form being 
termed globate. 

Fig. 150. The structure of a gland is wonderfully minute 

and complicated, even though it be but globate ; 
so much so that no dissection nor microscopical 
examination has yet been able to demonstrate 
the ultimate arrangement of its fibres, much 
less of its molecules and atoms. Fig. 150 is a 
representation of the follicles of a secreting gland 
multiplied and clustered together upon efferent 
(outgoing) ducts common to several of them, 
the several ducts converging to form the main 
duct, and the whole constituting the glandular 
structure. 

The important and essential agents in secretion are cells, 
which are developed on the lining membrane of the follicles; 
and these cells, as in the case of nutrition, are constantly 
fa>r off and reproduced. 

The Excri tory organs are the lungs, sl<ln, liver, kidney*, 

and bowels; and the excretions are respectively, carbonic add 

at, tafe, urine, and feces. All of the excretory organs are 

capable of vicarious duty to some extent — without which pro- 

How many kin.1- of secreting and excreting structures are there? What 
are exer- is ? 




160 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



vision, life could not long be maintained under the ever- 
changing vicissitudes of temperature, and other external influ- 
ences. Thus, when the skin is torpid or chilled, the lungs and 
kidneys especially, and to some extent the bowels and liver, 
excrete the perspirable matter; and when the liver is congested 
or inactive, the skin and kidneys especially, and to some extent 
the lungs and mucous surfaces, depurate the biliary elements. 
There are distributed along the mucous membrane of the 
alimentary canal, clusters of glands which excrete fecal and 
other putrescent elements from the blood ; of this char- 
acter, probably are Brunner's glands in the duodenum, and 
Peyefs glands in the jejunum and ilium. Numerous folds or 
convolutions of mucous membrane, termed the follicles of 
LieberMhn, are distributed through the whole length of the 

In Fig. 151 are seen— 1. The epiderma. 2. Its 
deep layer, the rete mucosum. 3. Two of 
the quadrangular papillary clumps com- 
posed of minute conical papillae, such as 
are seen in the palm of the hand or sole 
of the foot. 4. Deep layer of the derma, 
the corium. 5. Adipose cells. 6. A su- 
doriparous gland with its spiral duct, as 
are seen in the palm of the hand and sole 
of the foot. 7. Another sudoriparous gland 
with a straighter duct, such as is seen 
in the scalp. 8. Two hairs from the scalp, 
inclosed in their follicles ; their relative 
depth in the skin is preserved. 0. A pa'r 
of sebiparous glands, opening by short 
ducts into the follicle of the hair. 

intestinal canal. They are es- 
pecially numerous in the small 
intestines; they excrete a tena- 
cious mucus and are so large in 
the caecum and rectum as to 
produce slight elevations on their surfaces. 

The excretory function of the lungs has already been explained 
in the chapter on Respiration. The sweat glands have been 
estimated at seven millions. Their normal excretion is 




Fig. 151.— Anatomy of tue Skin. 



Can you illustrate vicarious excretory duly ? How many sweat glands are 
there ? 



SECRETION AND EXCRETION. 1G1 

evaporated from the surface as rapidly as it is produced, 
hence normal perspiration is insensible. Sweating in the man- 
ner of sensible perspiration only occurs in abnormal conditions, 
or when in consequence of a humid atmosphere, the sweat ac- 
cumulates on the skin. 

The cutaneous excretory structures include the meibom- 
ian follicles, which are seated in the tarsal cartilages, and 
produce the viscid, gummy fluid of the edges of the eyelids; 
the ceruminoiis, which forms the thick resinous substance termed 
ear-wax; the sebaceous glands, which excrete an adipose or 
oily matter, and the sudoriferous glands, which excrete the 
perspirable matter proper. 

The arrangement of the cutaneous excreting structures, as 
well as that of the hairs, is shown in Fig. 151. 

The hair, nails, perspiratory glands and ducts, and sebiferous 

Fig. 152 shows the anatomy of a portion of the skin 
taken from the palm of the hand. 1. Papillary layer, 
marked by longitudinal furrows (2), which arrange the 
papillae into ridges. 3. Transverse furrows, which 
divide the ridges into small quadrangular clumps. 
4. The rete mucosum raised from the papillary layer 
and turned back. 5, 5. Perspiratory ducts drawn out 
straight by the separation of the rete mucosum from 
the papillary layer. 

glands (a generic term, including the 

sebaceous and ceruminous glands, and 

meibomian follicles), are termed in anat- Fig. 152.— Integument 

, „ ., 7 . m , of the Hand. 

omy, appendages of the skin. The pores 

of the skin are the openings of the perspiratory ducts, hair 
follicles, and sebiferous glands, through the epiderma,, or cut- 
icle. This structure, with that of the derma, or true skin, is 
represented in Fig. 152. 

The litter, being the largest organ in the body, must have 
an important function to perform. The bile is considered by 
a majority of physiologists as both a secreting and excreting 
organ ; if so, it is certainly a physiological anomaly. But the 
weight of argument is on the side of its harmony with the gen- 
Is normal perspiration sensible? What are the cutaneous excretory struc- 
tures ? What are sebiferous glands ? 




162 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 




Fig. 153.— Lobules of the Liver. 



eral organic arrangement, which makes the bile wholly excre- 
mentitious. 

Late physiologists, having detected a saccharine substance 
in the liver (which might have been abnormal, or a product of 

the process of analysis,) 
have concluded that the liver 
is a sugar-making organ; 
and from this supposed fact 
some physicians have de- 
duced the unhygienic rule 
that we should eat sugar. 
The practice does not follow 
from the theory. We should 
no more eat sugar because 
the liver manufactures it than 
we should eat bile becauce 
the liver manufactures that. 
The minute anatomy of the 
liver is represented in Fig. 
153, which is a horizontal 
section of three superficial lobules, showing the two principal 
systems of blood-vessels. 

The kidneys, which excrete the more earthy and saline mat- 
ters of the disintegrated tissues, are dense and fragile in struc- 
ture, and when divided present an external vascular, and an 
internal medullary substance. The medullary or tubular portion 
is formed of pale-reddish conical masses, and the vascular or 
cortical portion, of blood-vessels and plexiform convolutions, of 
uriniferous tubuli, which not only constitute the surface, but 
dip between the cones and surround them nearly to their apices. 
The cones, or pyramids, are composed of straight and ex- 
ceedingly minute uriniferous tubes, not more than a fine hair 
in diameter ; these tubes commence at the apices of the 
cones, and surround them nearly to their apices. 

The minute structural arrangement of the kidney is shown 
in Fig. 154. 

The bowels, as already stated, have several clusters of glands 

Is the liver a secreting or excreting organ, or both ? "What of its sugar- 
making function ? 



SECRETION AND EXCRETION. 



163 



which excrete fecal matters from the blood, while they expel 
directly all matters that are indigestible 
and cannot be absorbed. The intestinal 
canal is divided into the small and large 
intestines ; the former are subdivided into 
the duodenum, jejunum, and ilium, and 
the latter into the ccecum, colon, and rec- 
tum, the whole constituting a continuous 
tube some thirty feet in length, so convo- 
luted and curved upon itself that what- 
ever passes must be transported a very 
circuitous route, and in some places as- 
cending contrary to the law of gravita- 
tion—a fact which proves conclusively 
that the living system acts on its con- 
tents, not the contents on the living 
system. 

All effete or waste matters of the system, if not duly elimina- 
ted, become impurities — are become causes of disease ; and in 
this sense are precisely analogous in effect to poisons directly 
introduced into the body. And there is probably no more pro- 
lific source of numerous and complicated maladies in civilized 
life than retained fecal matters, constituting what is usually 
termed constipation of the bowels. 




Fig. 154.— Section of the 
Kidney. 



How are the bowels divided anatomically ? What is the effect of retained 
excretions ? What of constipation? 



CHAPTER XIII. 



THE SPECIAL SENSES. 



Smelling, seeing, hearing, tasting, and feeling, are termed 
special or external senses ; their organs constitute the instru- 
ments of communication with all other objects in the universe, 
and their functions consist in the recognition of our relation 
to other things and other beings. Seeing and hearing recognize 
the nature and motion of distant objects, while smelling, tast- 
ing, and feeling take cognizance only of objects, particles, or 
atoms in contact with the living organism. 

SMELLINGL 

The nose is the aggregate of the external parts of the organ 
of smell, and the nasal fossce constitute the internal parts. 

The nose is divided anatomically into the nostrils, which over- 
hang the mouth ; the columna or partition between the nostrils, 
the vibrissa?, stiff hairs projecting across 
the openings, and guarding their entrance 
from dust and other injurious matters, the 

Fig. 155 shows the fibro-cartilages of the nose. 1. One ot 
the nasal bones. 2. Fibro-cartilage of the septum. 3. 
Lateral fibro-cartilage. 4. The alar fibro-cartilage. 5. 
Central portions of the alar fibro-cartilages, which con- 
stitute the columna. 6. Appendix of the alar fibro-car- 
tilage. 7. Nostril. 

iibro-cartilaginous integument forming the 
tip and wings of the organ, termed respec- 
f& tively lobulus and alw, or wings, bones, mus- 
cles, nerves, blood-vessels, and the mucous 
membrane which lines its internal parts. 
Cartilages. The nasal fossw are two irregular cavities, 

extending backward from the nose to the pharynx. On the out- 




What do you understand by the special senses ? 
divisions of the nasal organs ? 



What axe the anatomical 



THE SPECIAL SENSES. 



165 



er wall of each are three projecting processes termed spongy 
bones. The mucous membrane of the nasal fossae is termed 
Schneider fan, or pituitary, and is continuous with the lining 
membrane of the alimentary canal and windpipe; it also extends 
along the Eustachian tube (the canal or tube between the mouth 
and ear, and whose office is to admit air to the internal cavity 
of the tympanum). Its surface in the nose and nasal fossae is 
furnished with a delicate epithelium, supporting innumerable 
cilia, or hair-like filaments, whose motions or vibrations assist 
in resisting and expelling mor- 
bific matters. 

Fig. 156 is a vertical section of the mid- 
dle part of the cavities of the nose. 
7. Middle spongy bones. 8. Superior 
part of the nasal cavities. 10. Inferior 
spongy hones. 11. Vomer. 12. Upper 
jaw. 13. Middle meatus. 14. Inferior 
meatus. 17. Palatine process of the 
upper jaw. 18. Roof of the mouth, 
covered by mucous membrane. 19. A 
section of the mucous membrane. 

The ultimate filaments of Fig. 156.-Nasal Cavities. 

the olfactory nerve terminate in papillae on the mucous mem- 
brane, where the recognition of odors takes place. 




SEEixa. 

Seeing consists in the recognition of external objects through 
the medium of the eye as the organ or instrumentality of sight. 
The structures of the visual apparatus are divided anatomi- 
cally, into the coats, humors, and appendages. 

The outer coat (first tunic) of the eyeball is formed of two 
essential parts, termed sclerotic and cornea. The sclerotic is the 
dark, fibrous membrane investing four-fifths of the globe, its 
anterior surface being covered with a tendinous layer {tunica 
albuginen\. derived from the expansion of the tendons of the 
four recti mnscles. Apart of the tunica albuginea is covered 
by a mucous membrane, termed conjunctiva, which constitutes 



In what docs seeing consist? What are the principal structures of the vis- 
ual apparatus ? 



166 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



the " white of the eye." The cornea is the circular fifth part of 
the outer coat ; it is transparent, and resembles a watch-glass. 

The second or middle coat, or tunic, is formed of the choroid, 
a vascular membrane of a rich brown color externally, and a 
deep black on its inner surface ; the ciliary ligament, a dense 




Fig. 157.— Section of the Globe. 

Fig. 157 is a longitudinal section of the globe of the eye. 1. The sclerotic, thicker 
behind than in front. 2. The cornea, received within the anterior margin of the 
sclerotic, and connected with it oj means of a beveled edge. 3. The choroid, con- 
nected anteriorly with (4) the ciliary ligament, and (5) the ciliary processes. 6. The 
iris. 7. The pupil. 8. The third layer of the eye, the retina, terminating anteriorly 
by an abrupt border at the commencement of the ciliary processes. 9. The canal of 
Petit, which encircles the lens (12) ; the thin layer in front of this canal is the 
zonula ciliaris, a prolongation of the vascular layer of the retina to the lens. 10. 
The anterior chamber of the eye, containing the aqueous humor, the lining mem- 
brane by which the humor is secreted is represented in the diagram. 11, The poste- 
rior chamber. 12. The lens, more convex behind than before, and enclosed in its 
proper capsule. 13. The vitreous humor enclosed in the lyaloid membrane, and in 
cells formed in its interior by that membrane. 14. A tubular sheath of the hyaloid 
membrane, which serves for the passage of the artery of the capsule of the lens. 
15. The neurilemma of the optic nerve. 16. The arteria centralis retinae, imbedded 
in the centre of the optic nerve. 

w T hite structure which surrounds the iris like a ring ; the iris, 
or rainbow (so named because of its many colors in different 
individuals), which constitute the partition between the an- 
terior and posterior chambers of the eye, its circular opening 
being the pupil of the eye ; and the ciliary processes, which con- 

What is the iris ? 
inated ? 



Why so named ? The pupil of the eye ? Why so denom- 



TIIE SPECIAL SENSES. 



167 




sist of triangular folds of the middle and internal layers of the 
choroid. They are covered with a thick black pigment. 

The third tunic or inner coat of the eye is the retina, which 

Fig. 168 is the posterior segment of a trans- 
verse section of the globe of the eye. seen 
from within. 1. The divided edge of the 
three tunics. The membrane covering the 
whole internal surface is the retina. -2. 
The entrance of the optic nerve with the 
arteria centralis retime piercing its centre. 
3 3. The ramifications of the arteria cen- 
tralis. 4. Foramen of Soemmering, in the 
centre of the axis of the eye ; the shade 
from the side of the section obscures the 
limhns lutens. which surrounds it. 5. A 
fold of the retina, which generally obscures 
the foramen after the eye has been opened. 

is formed of three layers, the mid- Fig. 15S.-Posterior Segment. 
die one termed nervous, being the expansion of the optic nerve. 
The humors of the eye are the aqueous, which occupies the 
two chambers of the eye; the vitreous, which is the transparent 

I 

I dissection of the eye- 
ball, showing its Becond tunic, 
and the mode of the distribution 
of the vena? vorticosae of the 
choroid. After Arnold. 1. Part 
of the sclerotic coat. 2. The 
optic nerve. 3 3. The choroid 
coat. 4. The ciliary ligament. 
5. The iris. 6 8. The rens vor- 

3 7. The trunks of the 
Tense vorticosae at the point 
y have pierced the 
sclerotica. 8 s. Tb.- ppsterloi 
ciliary reins, which enter the 
iil in company with the 
-rior ciliary aro-ri-'s. by 
pi'-i Vrotic at 9. 10. 

Oneot th.' long ciliarrnerrefl, ac- 
companied by a long ciliary vin. 




Pie. 169.— DiftSEcnoH of the Eyeball. 



. fluid constituting the greater portion of the bulk of the 
of the eye, and the crystalline lens, which is situated be- 
hind th*' pupil, surrounded by the ciliary processes, and embed- 

t the retina? How many humors of the 

eye ? Hon denomiBafc d } 



168 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



ded in the front part of the vitreous humor. The capsule of 
the lens is a transparent elastic membrane which surrounds and 
encloses it. 

The uses of the several structures of the eye may be briefly 
stated : The ocular group of muscles moves the eyeball in all 
directions; the firm sclerotic coat gives form to the organ of 
vision, and protects its delicate tissues ; the transparent cornea 
furnishes a medium for the transmission of the rays of light; 
the choroid supports the nutritive vessels, and by means of the 
dark pigment on its posterior surface, absorbs the scattered 
rays of light that might otherwise interfere with the function 
of the retina in the recognition of objects; the iris regulates 
the quantity of light admitted through the pupil, by contracting 

so as to diminish its aperture 
when the rays are too strong, 

Fig. 160 is the anterior segment of a trans- 
verse section of the globe of the eye, seen 
from within. 1. The divided edge of the 
three tunics: sclerotic, choroid (the dark 

• layer), and retina. 2. The pupil. 3. The 
iris, the surface presented to view in this 
section being the uvea. 4. The ciliary 
processes. 5. The scalloped anterior bor- 
der of the retina. 

and expanding so as to enlarge 
the aperture when the light is 
Fig. 160.— Anterior Segment. more feeble, and the humors re- 
fract the rays of light so as to present the most favorable rela- 
tion of the retina to the object to be recognized. 

APPENDAGES OF THE EYE. 

The appendages of the eye are the eyebrows, eyelids, eye- 
lashes, conjunctiva, cavuncula lachrymcdis, and the lachrymal 
apparatus. They are represented in Fig. 161. 

The eyebrows {super cilia) are projecting arches of integu- 
ment, covered with short, thick hairs. The eyelids {palpebral) 
are valvular layers in front of the eye ; the elliptical space 
b e t W een is divided into outer and inner canthus. The trian- 




What are the uses of the several structures ? 
the eye ? 



What are the appendages of 



THE SPECIAL SENSES. 



109 




gular portion of the inner canthus near the nose is termed 
locus lachrymalis. The la hrymal canal*, between the eyes and 
nose, commence on each side o\' small papilla* in the lacus 
lachrymalis. The thin fibro-cartilaginous bands which support 
the edges of the eyelids are termed the tarsal cartilages; tin 4 Met- 
borniam glands, which produce the viscid matter of the eyelids, 
are embedded in the internal surface of the tarsal cartilages. 
The eyelashes (cilia) are triple rows of long, thick hairs, curl- 

Fi£. MM is a representation of the appendages 
of the eye. 1. The superior tarsal cartiiane. 
•2. The lower border of the cartilage, on which 
are seen the openings of the Meibomian 
glands. 8, The inferior tarsal cartilage : along 
the upp^r border of this cartilage the openings 
of the Meibomian glands are like wise seen. 
4. The lachrymal gland— its superior or orbital 
portion. 5. Its inferior or palpebral portion. 
6. The lachrymal ducts. 7. The plica semi- 
lunaris. S. The c.irunculi lachrymalis. :». 
The puneta lachrymalia of the lachrymal 
canals. 10. Tl >r lachrymal canal. 

11. The inferior lachrymal canal. 12. «The lachrymal sac. 14. The dilatation of the 
naaal duct, where it opens into the inferior meatus of the nose. 15. The nasal duct. 

ing from each other on the eyelids, 80 as to obviate interlacing. 
The conjunctiva, which covers the anterior surface of the eye, 
is reflected on the lids so as to form their inner layer. A small, 
reddish body occupying the lacus lachrymalis at the inner can- 
thus is teimed caruncula lachrymalis. On the outer side of the 
earuncula is a fold of the conjunctiva, termed plica semilunaris, 
which in birds i> the membrana nicitans. 

The lachrymal apparatus consists of the lachrymal giand^ 
which produces the tears at the outer and upper part of the or- 
bit : th ' lachrymalia, small openings in the lachrymal 
papilla; the lachrymal canals, which commence at the puneta 
lachrymale, and run inward to the lachryma sac; the lachry- 
ni'ii sac, which constitutes the upper extremity of the nasal 
ad th«' nasal <hi< : . b sfa >rt canal, less than an inch in 
length, running downward, backward, and outward to the in- 
ferior meatn minating in an enlarged orifice. 



Fig. !»'>!. -Appendages of the Eye 



Lachrymal canals? Meibomian glands? 
nal gland \ Nasal Dad \ 



170 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



The Special Senses.— Hearito. 

The organ of hearing is divided anatomically into 
I. The External Ear. 
II. The Tympanum, or Middle Ear. 
III. The Labyrinth, or Internal Ear. 

The principal parts of the external ear are the pinna, forming 
its prominent rim and the cartilaginous plate, which is funnel- 




Fig, 162.— Structure of the Ear. 

Fig. 162 is a representation of all parts of the ear. 1. Meatus auditorius externus. 
2. Drum of the ear, or tympanum. 3, 4, 5. The bones of the ear. 7. Vestibule, the 
central part of the labyrinth. 8, 9, 10. The semi-circular canals. 11, 12. The chan- 
nels of the cochlea. 13. Auditory nerve. 14. Eustachian tube, the channel from 
the middle ear to the throat. 

shaped to collect the vibrations of air, and the meatus, the 
tube which conveys them to the drum of the ear — tympanum. 

The meatus auditorius is about an inch in length, extending 
inward and a little forward; in the substance of its lining mem- 
brane are the ceruminous glands, which excrete the ear-wax. 



What are the divisions of the ear ? What do you understand by meatus ? 
Ceruminous glands? 



THE SPECIAL SENSES. 



171 



Short, stiff hairs stretch across the meatus to prevent the ingress 
of dust and insects. 

The tympanum is an irregular bony cavity within the petrous 
or most solid portion of the temporal bone. It is bounded 
externally by the membrana tympani, and is filled with air, 
which is received through the Eustachian tube. 

The three bones of the ear {malleus, or hammer-like ; incus, 
anvil-like : and stapes, stirrup-like;) are connected and held 
together by ligaments, and moved upon themselves by several 
very small muscles. 

The labyrinth — so named in reference to the complexity of 

Fig. 163 is a diagram exhibiting the 
principal divisions and parts of the 
ear. p. Pinna, t. Tympanum. /. 
Labyrinth. 1. Upper part of the 
helix. 2. Antihelix. 3. Tragus. 4. 
Antitragus. 5. Lobulus. ti. Concha. 
7. Upper part of the fossa innomi- 
nata. 8. The meatus. 9. Mem- 
brana tympani, divided by the sec- 
tion. 10. The three small bones of 
the ear. malleus, incus, and stapes, 
crossing the area of the tympanum ; 
the foot of the stapes blocks up the 
fenestra ovalis upon the inner wall 
of the tympanum. 11. The promon- 
tory. 1*2. Fenestra rotunda ; the 
dark opening above the bones leads 
into the mastoid cells. 13. Eusta- 
chian tube : the little canal upon 
this tube contains the tensor tym- 
pani muscle in its passage to the 
tympanum. 14. Vestibule. 15. The 
three semi-circular canals, horizon- 
tal, perpendicular, and oblique. 16. The ampulla? upon the perpendicular and hor- 
izontal canals. 17. Cochlea. 18. A depression between the convexities of the two 
tubuli which communicate with the tympanum and vestibule ; one is the scala 
tympani, terminating at 12 ; the other the scala votibuli. 

it- communications — consists of a bony and a membranous 
portion : the bony portion presenting a series of cavities chan- 
neled through the substance of the petrous part of the tem- 




Fig. 16-3.— Diagram of the Ear. 



What h the tympanum? What are the bones of the ear? What is the 
labyrinth? 



172 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 




Fig. 164.— The Cochlea. 



poral bone, and divided into vestibule, semi-circular canals, and 
cochlea. 

The membranous labyrinth is a counterpart of the vestibule 
and semi-circular canals, but smaller in size. Its cavity is filled 

Fig. 164 shows the cochlea divided parallel 
with its axis through the centre of the 
modiolus. 1. Modiolus. 2. The infundi- 
bulum. 3, 3. Cochlear nerve. 4, 4. The 
scala tympani of the first turn of the coch- 
lea. 5, 5. Scala vestibuli of the first turn ; 
the septum between 4 and 5 is the lamina 
spiralis 8. Loops formed by filaments of 
the cochlear nerve on the lamina spinalis. 
9, 9. Scala tympani of the second turn of 
the cochlea. 10, 10. Scala vestibuli of the 
second turn. 11. Half turn of the scala 
vestibuli ; the dome over it is the cupola. 
14. Helicotrema; a bristle is passed through 
it, in front of which is the hamulus. 

with a limpid fluid, and contains two small calcareous bodies 
termed otoconites. 

The whole structural arrangement of the ear, like that of all 

Fig. 165 k- the labyrinth of the left ear, laid 
open to exhibit its cavities and the membra- 
nous labyrinth. 1. Cavity of the vestibule. 
2. Ampulla of the superior semi -circular 
canal. 4. The superior canal, with its con- 
tained membranous canal. 5. Ampulla of 
the inferior canal. 6. Termination of the 
membranous canal of the horizontal semi- 
circular canal in the sacculus communis. 7. 
Ampulla of the middle semi-circular canal. 
8. The same canal with its membranous 
canal. 9. Common canal. 10. Membranous 
common canal. II. Otoconite of the saccu- 
lus communis. 12. Sacculus proprius ; its 
otoconite is seen through its membranous 
parieties. 13. Fir^t turn of the cochlea 14, 
Extremity of the scala tympani, correspond- 
ing with the fenestra rotunda. 15. Lamina 
spiralis. 18. Half turn of the cochlea. 19. Lamina spiralis, terminating in its falci- 
form extremity. The dark space included within the falciform curve of the ex- 
tremity of the lamina spiralis is the helicotrema. 20. The infundibulum. 




Fig. 165. — The Labtrixth. 



What are the divisions of the labyrinth? What are otoconites ? 



THE SPECIAL SENSES. 173 

the other organs of external sense, shows it to be an apparatus 
for recognition, and not for mere reception. Sound is not the 
"vibrations of air upon the drum of the ear," but the recogni- 
tion, by the mind, of the motions of an object, through th 
medium of the auditory apparatus, just as the mind recognizes 
distant objects through the medium of the eye. Vibrations o 
air are essential to sound, but are not themselves sound. The 
moving body, as when a bell is struck, causes vibrations in 
the air, and the force and rapidity of these vibrations ar» 
recognized as noises, more or less distant, and pleasant o 
unpleasant, concordant or discordant, as the case may be. 
Voice, speech, singing, and instrumental music of all kinds, ar^ 
but mental recognitions of the mode of motion of the " sound- 
ing body." 

The rationale of sound may be better understood by reference 
to the diagram, fig. 166. 

When the tongue, «, strikes the side at 6, the side springs 
out to c, changing the form of the bell from a circle to an 
ellipse. When the bell springs back to its original form, its 
sides retract and expand in the opposite 
direction, as a vibrating string rebounds be- 
yond its centre or starting-point ; and so 
alternately, making a succession of what ai e 
termed "sonorous waves," which gradually 
diminish in force as the vibrations lessen in 
extent, until they cease to be recognized by 
the ear. The "perception of sound 1 ' is the 

mental recognition of these vibrations of the FlG - 168 —Vibrating 

° Bell. 

air by the instrumentality of the auditory 

apparatus; hence, where there is no ear there can be no sound. 

The ik Hydropathic Encyclopedia" says: 

k * The primitive sounds of the musical scale are derived from 
the different forces or kinds of vibration. Thus, when a bell is 
struck, the first full, loud sound is the fundamental or key 
note. When the force of the blow is partially spent, there is 
a different degree of motion, producing a different force of 

AVhat is the rationale of sound ? How may this be illustrated ? 




174 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

atmospheric vibration, and occasioning a modified perception 
of sound ; and when the vibrations have decreased still further 
in intensity, a third primitive sound is recognized. 

"A musical chord is the combined sound of several sounds 
produced simultaneously. When the effort is pleasant to the 
ear, these chords are called concords ; and when unpleasant, 
discords. The most pleasing concords are produced when the 
greatest number of vibrations in a given time occur together ; 
and the most disagreeable discords, when the fewest vibrations 
take place simultaneously. 

" A good idea of concord may be gathered from the following 
illustration : 
, ; j i . u On counting the waved lines, it will be 
vj^^ found that every third vibration of the 

Y /YV V Y V sound represented by the upper line, and 
Fig. 167.— Musical Chord, every second vibration of the sound rep- 
resented by the under line, come together, the conjunction be- 
ing denoted by the dotted cross-lines. According to the greater 
or less frequency of these coincident vibrations, are the sounds 
concordant or discordant. The most agreeable concord is, of 
course, that where every vibration of one sound and every other 
vibration of another sound come together." 

TASTING. 

The tongue is usually termed the organ of taste ; but the 
papillae of the mucous membrane of the tongue, soft palate, and 
fauces, are instruments of taste, although those of the tongue 
are more acutely sensitive. 

The muscular fibres of the tongue being longitudinal, trans- 
verse, oblique, and vertical, afford it every possible variety of 
motion, while its terminal point, or tip, approximates the skin 
in structure, and, like it, is an instrument of touch or feeling. 

Simple as is the function of taste, its principal organ, the 
tongue, is a highly complex structure. 

Solid substances in contact with the tongue, or mucous mem- 
brane of the mouth, are only felt, not tasted. Solubility of 

What is a musical chord ? What is the rationale of discords ? What are 
Instruments of taste ? 



THE SPECIAL SENSES. 



175 



the matter in contact is essential to taste. The sense of taste 
may also be excited by mental impressions, and by mechanical 
and chemical irritants. 

The purpose of the function of taste is to direct us in the 
selection of food ; and an ability to appreciate and enjoy 
healthful alimentary substances is in the 
exact ratio of the integrity of the organ ; 
but when perverted or depraved by 
alcohol, tobacco, pungent condiments, 

The tongue and its papilla are seen in Fig. 168. 1. 
The raphe, which sometimes bifurcates in the dor- 
sum, as in the figure. 2, 2 Lobes of the tongue; the 
rounded eminences on this part of the organ and near 
its tip are the fungiform papillae : the smaller papilla?, 
anions: which the former are dispersed, are the coni- 
cal and filiform papilla*. 3. Tip of the tongue. 4, 4. 
It sides, on which the papilla? are arranged in fringed 
and lamellated fornix 5, 5. The A-shaped row of 
papilla? eircumvallata?. 6. Foramen coecum. 7. Mu- 
cous glands at the root of the tongue. 8. Epiglottis. 
9, 9. Fra?na epiglottidis. 10, 10. Greater cornua of 
the hyoid bone. 

or unwholesome ingesta of any kind, it 
is no longer a guide, and may crave 
the most indigestible and unhealthful 
viands. 




Fig. 168.— The Tongue. 



FEELING. 



The skin is the organ of touch. Through the medium of the 
integument of the bodily organization, the mind recognizes 
the form and properties of bodies in contact — their size, form, 
density. <-t<-. 

The skin La continuous with the mucous membrane of the in- 
terna] canals and cavities, the two structures blending together 
in arrangement and function at all of the inlets and outlets 
of ih»' body. It is composed of two layers, the derma, or true 
skin, and the epidenna, <>r scarf-skin. 

'Jh- composed chiefly of elastic cellulo-fibrous 

What :- Sow may taste be excited j Of what layers U 

ikin compoe 



176 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

tissue, abundantly supplied with blood-vessels, nerves, and 
lymphatics. 

The ejpiderma (cuticle) envelopes and protects the derma ; its 
external surface is hard and horny, resembling the scales of a 
fish ; its internal surface is soft and cellular, and is termed rete 
mucosum. # 

The nerves of feeling are derived from the posterior roots of 
the spinal, and fibres of the fifth and eighth pair of cerebral 
nerves. They are distributed to the papillae of the skin, 
which are small elevations enclosing loops of blood-vessels and 
branches of sensory nerves, situated on the external surface 
of the true skin (cutis vera). 

Fig. 169 is a representation of the papillae of the palm of the 
hand, the cuticle being removed. 

When external objects come in contact with the sensitive sur- 
face, the only mental recognition is that of resistance, the degree 
of which determines the idea of their 
hardness or softness. When, in conse- 
quence of the contact, the sensory papillae 
are moved upon each other, there is a 
mental recognition of extension, space, 
Fm. 169. - Cutaneous Pa- roughness, smoothness, and other me- 
piliwe. chanical properties. 

The knowledge of form and weight some late physiologists 
have been unable to account for by the ordinary sense of touch, 
and have got out of the difficulty by supposing a sixth sense, 
which they call the muscular sense, to exist for that particular 
purpose. The sense of temperature has also been attributed to 
a distinct set of nerves, because the recognition of it occurred 
without the actual contact of the hot or cold body with the 
sensory surface. I do not see that either supposition makes 
the matter any clearer. Form and weight are but degrees of 
extension and resistance, and temperature, whether its essen- 
tial nature is caloric, light, . or electricity, is but the percep- 
tion of rays pr particles coming in contact with the sen- 
sory surface, and expanding or contracting, that is to say, 

From what sources are the nerves of feeling derived ? What does feeling 
recognize ? 




THE SPECIAL SENSES. 177 

moving the contractile tissues so as to impress the nervous 
papillae. 

The sense of touch is developed in different parts in propor- 
tion to the supply of sensory nerves. In man the aeuteness of 
the sense varies in different regions of the body. The lips, tip 
of the tongue, and inside of the last joints of the fingers are 
exquisitely sensitive, in consequence of the nerves being very 
numerous and superficially distributed. The epidermis is also 
very thin in those parts, and the innumerable lines and furrows 
afford the papillae a greater degree of isolation. The develop- 
ment of the sense corresponds with the number and extent of 
these lines and furrows. The sense of touch, like all the special 
senses, may be educated to a surprising degree of aeuteness and 
accuracy, as with the blind, who have been taught to read and 
even distinguish colors by it. 

What is the cause of the aeuteness of sensibility ? Can the sense of feeling 
be educated ? 



CHAPTER XIV. 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM-NEUROLOGfT. 

The nervous tissue of living organisms performs the func- 
tions of feeling and thinking. In man and in the higher ani- 
mals the nervous system consists of two very distinct sub- 
systems, one pertaining to mentality and the other to vitality. 
These divisions of the nervous system are so intimately related 
and interblended that each may communicate with and modify 
the action and condition of the other. It is because of this 
intercommunication between the nerves of organic life and 
those of the mental powers, that bodily derangements disturb 
the mental functions, and that mental impressions influence 
the bodily functions, affording thus a philosophical basis for 
the oft quoted, but seldom regarded, hygienic maxim, ' ' Mens 
sana in eorpore sano. " 

THE NERVOUS TISSUE. 

The nerves constitute the highest order of organized matter. 
It is the medium through which the mind is related to the 
muscles and to the external world. The nervous structure is 
composed of two kinds of matter, one of which is white, medul- 
lary, or fibrous, and the other gray, cineritious, or vesicular. 
Wherever these two kinds of matter are united, they constitute 
a nervous center. In the brain the gray matter is external, 
while in the spinal cord the reverse is the case. 

The ultimate nerve fiber is of tubular form, consisting of an 
external delicate membrane and a soft internal substance, as 
represented in Fig. 170. 

Microscopical observations have divided the elements of the 
nervous system into white fibers, gray fibers, cells, and granules. 

What are the functions of nervous tissue ? What are the distinctions of 
nervous matter ? 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM— NEUROLOGY. 



179 



Fig. 171 is a diagram of the arrangement and distribution 
of the cerebro-spinal nerves. 




8 d' c bed 

Fig. 170.— Tubular Fiber of Spinal Nerve. 

Fur. 170 is a diagram of tabular fiber of a spinal nerve, a. Axis cylinder, b. Inner 
border of white substance. <*, c. Outer border of white substance, d, d. Tubular 
membrane. B. Tubular fibers ; <?, in a natural state, showing the parts as in A. 
/. The white substance and axis cylinder interrupted by pressure, while the tubular 
membrane remains, g. The same with varicosities, h. Various appearances of the 
white substance and axis cylinder forced out of the tubular membrane by pressure. 
i. Broken end of tubular fiber, with the white substance closed over it. K. Lateral 
bulging of white substance and axis cylinder, from pressure. /. The same, more 
complete, g. Varicose fibers of various sizes, from the cerebellum. C. Gelatinous 
fibers from the solar plexus, treated with acetic acid, to exhibit their cell nuclei. 
B and C are magnified 00 diam« 

From the u Hydropathic Encyclopaedia v is copied the follow- 



What is the structure of the ultimate nerve-fiber ? 



180 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



ing brief but lucid explanation of the elements of the nervous 
structure : 

" White nerve-fibers compose most of the brain, spinal cord, 
and cerebro-spinal nerves, and enter into the structure of the 
organic system. They terminate in the various internal organs, 
at the surface of the body, and in the substance of the cerebro- 
spinal axis, by forming loops. In size they vary from ^ to ~ 
of an inch in diameter. 

" Gray nerve-fibers are smaller 
in diameter, and less transpar- 
ent. They constitute the prin- 
cipal part of the organic system, 
and are also present in the cere- 
bro-spinal nerves, most abund- 
antly in those of sensation. 
"The nerve-cells vary from 

3oo *° Tiso °^ an i ncn i n diameter. 
They are composed of a capsular 
sheath, containing a reddish- 
gray granular substance, and 
one or more nuclei and nucleoli, 
the nucleus being attached to 
the sheath. Nerve - cells are 
found in the gray substance of 
the brain and spinal cord, in 
the ganglions of the cerebro- 
spinal nerves, and in the organic 
nerves and their ganglia. From 
the circumference of the nerve- 
cells arise one or more delicate 
processes, from 
of an inch in diameter, 
which are the origins of the gray 
nerve-fibers. 

"The nerve-granules exist in 
Fig. HI —The Nervous System. the forms of minute homogene- 




thread-like 

i , i 

1000 ^° 10000 



What do white nerve-fibers compose? 
nerve-cells composed ? Nerve granules ? 



Gray nerve-fibe. s ? Of what are 



THE NERVOUS 8Y3T] VIIOLOGY. 



181 



ous particles, aggregated particles, and nucleated corpuscles, 
varying in diameter between : and of an inch. They serve 

as a bond of connection between tin 1 libers and cells of the 
brain and spinal cord, and enter into the various ganglia. 




-Minute Xekvou- 
Structure. 



Fig. n-2 represents the microscopic elements of the 
nervous structure. 1. Mode of termination of white 
nerve-fibers in loops ; throe of these loops are 
simple, the fourth i-s convoluted. The latter is 
found in situations where a high decree of sensation 
exists. 2. A white nerve-fiber from the brain, 
showing the varicose or knotty appearance pro- 
duced by traction or pressure. 3. A white nerve- 
fiber enlarged to show its structure, a tubular 
envelope and a contained substance — neurilemma 
and neurine. 4. A nerve cell showing its compo- 
sition of a granular-looking capsule and granule 
contents. 5. Its nucleus containing a nucleolus. 
6. A nerve-ceil, from which several processes are 



it contains also a nucleated nucleus. 7. Nerve-granules. 

• A - a collection of nerve-fibers into small bundles, or 

fasciculi, each fasciculus being invested by a distinct neuri- 
lemma. Several of these fas- 
ciculi are again collected 
into larger bundles, which 



The external surface of the cerebrum 
-oen in Fig. 173. a, a. The scalp 
turned down, b, b. Cut edges of the 
skull bones. 3. The dura mater sus- 
pended by a hook. 4. The left hem- 
isphere. 



are also enclosed in a sepa- 
rate neurilemma; then again 
the larger fasciculi are col- 
ed into a L-rand bundle, 
which is enclosed in a ^<'ii- 
eral neurilemma, or Bheath 
of white fibrous tissue/' 




Fie. 178. -Tra Urain Exposed. 



What function do nerve-granules perform ! Of what does a nerve consist? 



182 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



PRIMARY DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

For convenience of description, the nervous system may be 
considered under three primary divisions. 

1. The Brain Nervous System. 

2. The Organic Nervous System. 

3. The Reflex Nervous System. 

THE BRAIN NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

That the brain is the organ of mind, is now admitted by all 
respectable physiologists. According to phrenology, the brain 
consists of a plurality of organs, different portions of its sub- 
stance being appropriated to different recognitions and consti- 




Fig. 174.— Mesial Surface op the Brain. 

Fig. 174 represents the mesial surface of a longitudinal section of the brain. 1. Inner 
surface of the left hemisphere. 2. Divided centre of the cerebellum, show ing the 
arbor vitae. 3. Medulla oblongata. 4. Corpus callosum. 5. Fornix. 6. One of the 
crura of the fornix. 7. One of the corpora albicantia, pea-shaped bodies between 
the crura cerebri. 8. Septum lucidum. 9. Velum interpositum. 10. Section of 
the middle commissure in the third ventricle. 11. Section of the anterior commis- 
sure. 12. Section of the posterior commissure. 13. Corpora quadrigemina. 14. Pinea 
gland. 15. Aqueduct of Sylvius. 16. Fourth ventricle. 17. Pons Varolii, through 
which are seen passing the diverging fibres of the corpora pyramidalia. 18. Cms 
cerebri of the left side ; the third nerve arising from it. 19. Tuber cinerenm, from 
which projects the infundibulum, having the pituitary gland appended to its 
extremity. 20. One of the optic nerves. 21. The left olfactory nerve terminating 
anteriorly in a rounded bulb. 

What are the primary divisions of the nervous system ? What is the func- 
tion of the brain ? 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM— NEUROLOGY. 1§3 

tuting distinct mental powers. The convolutions of the brain 
certainly favor the theory of the phrenologians. 

The brain, which is the mass of nervous substance occupying 
the cavity of the cranium, is divided into the <er<brum. cerelel- 
lum. and medulla oblongata. It has three investing membranes: 
the dura mater y which is external, strong, and fibrous ; the 
middle, termed arachnoid, which is thin and transparent, and 
the pia ?nater. the internal covering, which consists of innumer- 
able blood-vessels held together by a thin layer of cellular tissue. 
The brain and its coverings together constitute the encephalon. 

THE CEREBRUM. 

The cerebral portion of the brain is divided into right and left 
hemispheres, and each hemisphere is subdivided into anterior, 
posterior, and middle lobes. There are also many parts or sub- 
divisions of the different portions of the brain, described 
niinutely in the works on Anatomy, but are not important 
except to the scientific teacher. 

All of the mental powers, with a single exception, that of 
ainativeness. are manifested by the cerebrum, its anterior por- 
tion manifesting the perceptive and reflective faculties, and the 
superior, posterior, and inferior portions the affectuous, mind, 
or feelings — these being grouped and subdivided into the moral 
emotions, domestic affections, and self-relative propensities. 

THE CEREBELLUM. 

The cerebellum constitutes in man one-seventh to one-sixth 
of the whole brain. Like the cerebrum, its external surface is 
composed of gray cells, and its internal substance of white 
fibrous matter. Its two hemispheres are united by the com- 
missure termed pons Varolii; this consists of transverse fibres, 
separated into two layers by the fascicula of the corpora 
pyramidal;*! and corpora olivaria. The crura cerebelli is consti- 
tuted of the union of these layers. 

It seems to be well settled by the investigations of late 
physiologists, that one of the functions of the cerebellum is to 

t What membranes enclose it P What are the di- 
• bellam ! 



184 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



co-ordinate and control the action of the muscles of loco- 
motion. 

THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA. 

This is a conical-shaped body, extending from the pons 
Varolii to the upper conical vertebra (atlas), and is really the 
upper and enlarged portion of the spinal cord. Its fibres, which 
constitute the commissures of the brain, are connected both 
with the cerebrum and cerebellum. The gray and white mat- 
ters of the medulla oblongata are intermixed, instead of being 
distinct, as in the cerebrum and cerebellum ; while in the spinal 
cord the arrangement is reversed, the white matter being exter- 
nal and the gray matter internal. 

THE SPINAL CORD. 

The spinal cord (medulla spinalis), with its membranes, and 
the roots of the spinal nerves, is contained within the spinal or 

In Fig. 175 are seen several sections 
of the base of the brain, the dis- 
tribution of the diverging fibres. 
1. Medulla oblongata. 2. Half of 
the pons Varolii. 3. Crus cerebri, 
crossed by the optic nerve (4), and 
spreading out into the hemisphere, 
where it is called corona radiata. 
5. Optic nerve. 6. Olfactory nerve. 
7. Corpora albicantia. 8. Fibres of 
the corpus pyramidale passing 
through the pons. 9. The fibres 
passing through the thalamus opti- 
cus. 10. The fibres passing through 
the corpus striatum. 11. Their dis- 
tribution to the hemisphere. 
12. Fifth nerve. 13. Fibres of the 
corpus pyramidale, which pass out- 
ward with the corpus restiforme 
into the cerebellum. 14. Section 
through one of the hemispheres of 
the cerebellum, showing a body 
called corpus rhomboideum in the 
centre of its white substance, and 
the arbor vitae. 15. The opposite 
hemisphere. 




Fig. 175.— Base of the Brain. 



What is the situation of the medulla oblongata ? How do its fibres differ 
from those of the encephalon ? 



THE XERYOCS SYSTEM— NEUROLOGY. 



185 






.y8 






"M 



vertebral column, extending from the base of the skull to the 
oscooeygis. Its outer membrane (th* is continuous 

with the dura mater of the brain; its cen- , 

tral and internal membranes are prolonga- 
tions of the arachnoid and pia mater. 

The spinal cord is divided into lateral , I 
halves, and aach lateral half is subdivided W 
by a lateral sulcus into anterior and pos- 
terior columns, the anterior, according \ 
Sir Charles Bell, giving origin to the nerves 
of m and the posterior to the nerves 

isation. 

In Fig. 176 are Been the relations of the 
spinal cord to the medulla oblongata, pons 
Varolii, and cerebellum, as well as the 
several enlargements in its com- 

A spin DC contains a bundle of 

sensory fibres passing upward to the brain, 
a m - r. conveying the influence of 

volition from the brain; also an 5 or 

centripetal set of fibres, terminating in the 
spinal cord, and taking cognizance of exter- 
nal objects, and an * or centrifugal 
set. arising from the spinal cord, terminat- 
ing in the muscles, which they influence 
and control. 

THE REFLEX XERVOUS SYSTEM. 

The afferent and efferent nerves, with the 
gray matter in the center of trie spinal 
cord, constitute what is termed the 

m. But the rationale of " reflex 
action*" [a explained very erroneously in the 
. lar.l works on Ph> and Path- 

ology. The error consists in assuming that 
•nail obj«''-T> make " impressions' 1 on 



v 



IT-'.. 



Irfidedf v ' saspinali ainf What 

13 the re A* -X nervous syate 



186 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



the organs of sense, which impressions are ' ' conveyed " to the 
spinal cord, and thence radiated or conveyed to the muscles. 
The true theory is simple enough when we understand by the 
term impression, vital recognition. The presence and qualities 
of the external object are recognized through the media of the 
sentient, or in going nerves, and the action of the muscles in 
relation thereto is determined by the motor, or out-going nerves. 
All spasmodic movements of the muscular system are prop- 
erly termed reflex actions. The producing causes may be in 
the spinal cord itself, or on the surface, constituting the two 
kinds of reflex action termed centric and excentric. 



Fig. 177 is a diagram of the origins and 
terminations of the different groups of 
nervous fibres, a. a. Vesicular substance 
of the spinal cord. 0, b. Vesicular sub- 
stance of the brain, e. Vesicular sub- 
stance at the commencement of the 
afferent, which consists of c 1, the 
sensory nerve passing to the brain, and 
s 1, the spinal division, or excitor nerve, 
which terminates in the vesicular sub- 
stance of the spinal cord. On the other 
side is the efferent or motor nerve, con- 
sisting of two divisions, c 2, the cerebral 
portion conveying voluntary motion, and 
s 2, the spinal division conveying reflex 
motion. 




Fig. 177.— Groups of Nervous Fibres. 



THE CRANIAIi 1STERVES. 

There are nine pairs of cranial nerves, all of which emerge 
through foramina at the base of the cranium. 

The First Pair of the cranial nerves is termed Olfactory, and 
is appropriated to the sense of smelling. Each arises in the 
brain by three roots, which are united into a bulbous mass on 
the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. From this bulbous 
mass (bulbus olfactorius) the nerves are given off which are 
distributed to the mucous membrane of the nose. 

The Second Pair are the Optic — those of seeing. Each is a 
large cord arising from the thalmus opticus and tubercula quad- 



What is the true theory of reflex action ? What is the function of the first 
pair of nerves ? Second ? 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM— NEUROLOGY. 



187 



rigemina, winding around the cms cerebri as a flattened band, 
termed tractus opt/cits, and joining its fellow in front of the 
tuber cinerium ; here it forms a chiasm, termed the optic commis- 
sure, then proceeding forward the nerve diverges from its fellow, 
passes through the optic foramen to the eyeball, and, passing 
through the sclerotic and choroid coats, expands into the retina, 
the nervous membrane of the eye. 




Fig. 178.— The Nerves Connected with the Brain. 

Fig. 178 shows the origin of the cranial nerves. The numbers are placed against the 
corresponding pairs of nerves. 11 and 12 are spinal nerves, a a a. Cerebrum, b. 
Cerebellum, c. Medulla oblongata, d. Medulla spinalis. /. Corpus callosum. 

The Third Pair are regarded as nerves of motion — Motores 
OcvZorum. They arise from the cms cerebri, and are distribu- 
ted to all of the muscles of the eye-ball, except the external 
rectus and superior oblique. Each sends a branch to the 
ophthalmic ganglion, from which proceed the ciliary nerves of 
the iris. 

The Fourth Pair are the smallest of the cranial nerves, and 
are also nervee of motion. They are termed Paiheteci. Each 



What is the function of the third pair of nerves? Fourth pair? Why 
kenned paAneted I 



188 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



patheticus arises from the valve of the brain (valve of Yiessens) 
and is distributed to the superior oblique muscle. 

The Fifth Pair are termed Trifacial. They are the largest 
of the cranial nerves, and the principal nerves of sensation of 
the head and face. They arise, like the spinal nerves, from two 
roots. Each arises in front of the floor of the fourth ventricle, 
and, near the extremity of the petrous portion of the temporal 



In Fig. 179 is seen the distribution of the 
fifth pair of nerves. 1. Orbit. 2. Antrum 
of the upper jaw. 3. Tongue. 4. Lower 
jaw. 5. Root of the fifth pair, forming 
the ganglion of Casser. 6. Ophthalmic 
branch. 7. Superior maxillary. 8. Infe- 
rior maxillary. 9. Frontal branch. 10. 
Lachrymal 1*. Nasal. 12, Internal na- 
sal. 13. External nasal. 14. External 
and internal frontal. 15. Infra-orbitary. 
16. Posterior dentals. 17. Middle dental. 
18. Anterior dental. 19. Labial and pal- 
pebral branches of the infra-orbital. 20. 
Orbitar. 21. Pterygoid. 22. Masseter, 
temporal, pterygoid, and buccal branches. 
23. Lingual branch, joined at an acute 
angle by the chorda tympani. 24. Infe- 
rior dental, terminating in 25. Mental 
branches. 26. Superficial temporal. 27. 
Auricular branches. 28. Mylo - hyoid 
branch. 



bone, spreads out into a large 
semi - lunar ganglion, termed 
Casserian ; this ganglion divides into the ophthalmic, superior 
maxillary, and inferior maxillary branches. 

The Ophthalmic nerve is a short branch, only three-fourths of 
an inch in length, and, passing out at the sphenoidal fora- 
men, divides into three branches, frontal, lachrymal, and nasal, 
distributed, respectively, to the conjunctiva, upper eyelid, and 
integument of the forehead; the lachrymal gland, temple-cheek, 
and inner portion of the orbit and to the anterior part of the 
mucous membrane of the nose, and the integument at the ex- 




Fig. 179.— Trifacial Nerves. 



What is the function of the fifth pair of nerves ? How distributed ? 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM— NEURALOGY. 



189 



treniity of the nose; also to various portions of different struc- 
tures of the eye and its appendages. 

The Superior MaxiUary nerve is distrib- T* \ 
uted to the lower eyelid and conjunctiva, '_ (f c 

muscles and integument of the upper lip. \\\ M 
nose, and cheek, forming a plexus with 
the facial nerves. 
The Inferior Maxillary is the largest 

division of the fifth pair. It is distrib- 
uted very extensively to the temporal 
and maxillary regions, chin, lower lip, 
teeth, gums, tongue, parotid gland, and yfj 
external parts of the ear. *^(h 

In Wig, 180 is seen a representation of the origin and 
distribution of the eighth pair. 1. 3, 4. Medulla ob- 
longata. 1 is the corpus pyramidale of one side. :\. 
Corpus olivare. 4. Corpus restil'onne. 2. Poi - 
rolii. 5. Facial nerve *i. Origin of the glosso-pha- 
rynjreal. 7. Ganglion of Andersen. 8. Trunk of the 
nerve. 9. Spinal accessory nerve. 10. Ganglion of 
the pneumoiiastric. 11. Its plexifonn ganglion. 12. 
Its trnnk. 13. Its. pharyngeal branch forming the 
pharyngeal plexus (14), assisted by a branch from the 
glogso-pharymjri-al (8), and one from the superior 
laryngeal (15). 16. Cardiac branches. 17. Recurrent 
laryngeal branch. 18. Anterior pulmonary branches. 
19. Posterior pulmonary branches. 20. (Esophageal 
plexus. 21. Gastric branches. 22. Origin of the 
spinal accessory. 23. Its branches distributed to the 
sterno-mastoid muscle. 24. Its branches to the tra- 
pezius muscle. 

The Sixth P<nr are termed Abducentes. 
They are nerves of motion, and are dis- 
tributed to the external rectus muscle. 
A paralysis of this muscle occasions in- 
ternal squinting. 

TIj ; / Pair are nerves of motion, 

and are distributed to the face and ear; 
hem-*- are termed Facial and Auditory. 




Fig. 180.— 8th Pair of Nerves. 



How Ifl the BUp< irior maxillary nerve distributed y 
th pair ? 



Inferior maxillary ? 



190 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

The Eighth Pair consists of three nerves, termed glosso- 
pharyngeal, pneuinogastric, and spinal accessory. By some 
anatomists these divisions of the eighth pair are regarded as 
ninth, tenth, and eleventh pairs. 

The Glosso-Pharyngeal nerve is distributed to the mucous 
membrane of the base of the tongue and fauces, tonsils, and 
mucous glands of the mouth. 

The Pneumogastric nerve, as its name indicates, is distribu- 
ted to the lungs and stomach; hence the division or extreme 
compression of its pneumatic branch interrupts respiration 
and causes instant death, while a similar condition of its gastric 
branch destroys the digestive capacity of the stomach. 

The Spinal Accessory nerve arises from the upper portion of 
the spinal cord, and is distributed to the parts adjacent. 

The Ninth Pair of nerves is termed Hypoglossal. They are 
nerves of motion, and are distributed principally to the muscles 
of the tongue. 

THE SPINAL NERVES. 

There are thirty-one pairs of nerves originating from the 
spinal cord. Each arises by two roots, an anterior, which is 
motor, and a posterior, which is sensitive. In the intervertebral 
foramen, the posterior roots are enlarged into a ganglion, after 
which both roots unite and form a spinal nerve. There they 
form divisions of the spinal nerves, corresponding to the four 
divisions of the vertebral column — cervical, dorsal, lumbar, and 
sacral. 

There are eight pairs of cervical nerves. They are distributed 
to the structures of the face, neck, and upper extremities. 

Of the dorsal nerves there are twelve pairs, which are dis- 
tributed to muscles and integument of the back, the inter- 
costal and pectoral muscles, mammary glands and muscles, and 
integument in front of the chest and abdomen. 

There are five pairs of lumbar nerves. They supply the adja- 
cent muscles and integument, the pelvic organs, and the lower 
extremities. 

To what parts are the eighth pair of nerves distributed ? Cervical nerves ? 
Dorsal nerves ? Lumbar nerves ? 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM-NEUROLOGY. 



191 



The sacral nerves comprise six pairs, which are distributed to 
the parts in the immediate vicinity. 

The four upper sacral nerves give oil* branches which unite 
in forming a triangular body termed the sacral plexus, from 




Fig. 181.— Cranial Ganglia. 

Fig. 181 is a representation of cranial ganglia of the organic system. 1. Ganglion of 
Ribes. 2, A filament by which it communicates with the carotid plexus (3). 4. Cili- 
ary or lenticular eanglion. giving off ciliary branches to the globe of the eye. 5. Part 
of the inferior division of the third nerve, receiving a short, thick branch, (the short 
root) from the ganglion. 6. Part of the nasal nerve, receiving a longer branch (flu: 
long root) from the L r an<zlion. 7. A slender filament (the sympathetic tool 
directly backward from the eranglion of the carotid plexus. 8. Part of the sixth 
nerve in the cavernous sinus, receiving two branches from the carotid plexus. 
jailor Bpheno-palatine). 10. Its ascending branches, communicating 
with the superior maxillary nerve. 11. Its descendini:. or palatine branches. 12. Its 
internal branches, Bpheno-palatine, or naaal. 18. The naso-palatine branch, one of 
the nasal branches. 11. Posterior branch of the ganglion, the Vidian nerve. 15. Its 
carotid branch communicatinir with tin- carotid plexos. 16. Its petrosal branch, 
joining the Intnmescentifl gangliformifl of the facial nerve. 17. Facial nerve. 
rda tympani, which to join the gustatory. 10. Gustatory nerve. 

3i bmaxillan tympani and other filaments from 

• tie sympathetic. 



What is the distribution of the sacral nerves ! How is. the sacral plexus 
formed f 



192 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



which branches are distributed to the genital organs and parts 

adjacent, and to the 
lower extremities. 

THE ORGANIC NERVES 

The organic nerv- 
ous system has the 
same relation to the 
vital organism that 

In Fig. 182 is presented a 
view of the organic or 
sympathetic system. 
A AAA. Semilunar gang- 
lion and solar plexus. 
E. Small splanchnic nerve. 
C. Great splanchnic nerve. 
DDD, Thoracic ganglion. 

E. Internal branches. 

F. External branches. 

G. Right coronary plexus. 
H. Left coronary plexus. 

1. Inferior cervical gang- 
lion. J. Inferior twigs. 
K. External threads. L. In- 
ternal twigs. M. Anterior 
threads. N. Middle cervi- 
cal ganglion. O. Inteiior 
twigs. P. External twigs. 
Q. Superior cervical gang- 
lion. P. Superior branches. 
S. Inferior branch. T. Ex- 
ternal branches. U. Sub- 
maxillary gland. V. Vidian 
nerve. W. Naso-palatine 
branch. X. Spheno- pala- 
tine ganglion. Y. Ophthal- 
mic ganglion Z. Auditory 
nerve. 1. Penal plexuses. 

2. Lumbar ganglion. 3. In 
ternal branches. 4. Exter- 
nal branches. 5. Aortic 
plexus. 

the brain has to the 
mental. It presides 
over the develop- 
ment, growth, and 




Fig. 182.— Ganglionic System, 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM— NEUROLOGY. I93 

replenishment of the bodily structure j. It is sometimes termed 
the ganglionic nervous system, because of the numerous gang- 
lia of which it is largely constituted. It was formerly termed 
the sympathetic system, on a mistaken theory of its functi 

The organic nerves consist of a series of ganglia extending 
along both sides of the vertebral column: from these ganglia 
branches are distributed to all of the internal organs, coniniu- 
nicating also with all the other nerves of the body. 

The branches of distribution accompany the arteries, and 
form communications around them termed plexuses. These 
are named after the arteries, as mesenteric, hepatic, splenic, etc. 

One of the most important ganglions of the organic nervous 

-rem, and which may be regarded as the central point of the 
em, is the semi-lunar ganglion, situated near the stomach, 
as seen in the cut (Fig. 182). It consists of an aggregation of 
smaller ganglia with intervening spaces: around it is a gangli- 
form circle termed the solar plexus. The semi-lunar ganglion 
and solar plexus may be regarded as the presiding centre of the 
whole nutritive apparatus, and is doubtless the starting-point 
in the development of all living organisms. 

What is the relation of the organic nerve.- to vitality? Over what does the 
organic nervous system preside } Why is the organic nervous system termed 
gantrl ionic ? Of what do organic nerves consist ? 



CHAPTER XV. 

MICROSCOPICAL ANATOMY. 

VITALITY AND CHEMISTRY. 

Dissections have enabled the anatomist to ascertain the 
various parts or organs of which the organization, as a whole, 
is composed ; to determine the various structures of which the 
organs are composed, and to trace out the different tissues 
which form the structures. But the elements of the tissues are 
too fine for mechanical manipulations, too minute for unaided 
vision. What is known concerning them has been revealed by 
the microscope, and mostly within the present century. It is 
unfortunate, however, for microscopical researches, that physi- 
ologists and chemists do not make the line of demarkation 
clear between their respective sciences, as it is in nature. 
There is no more chemistry in the living organism than there is 
vitality in a block of granite. Much is said of "organic chem- 
istry," " histochemistry, " " zoochemistry," etc., as though the 
changes in living structures were analogous to those which 
occur in dead matter. They are very different. They are trans- 
formations, instead of the mere combinations and separations 
of elements. 

Chemical analysis can never determine the constituents of 
the living organ, structure, tissue, cell, or germ; it can only 
ascertain what substances are left after the process of analysis 
has been performed. It takes no cognizance of that molecular 
arrangement which is the essential condition of life; and, more- 
over, chemical analysis can not commence until this molecular 
arrangement is destroyed — until death has taken place. 

When a chemical substance is analyzed, a salt, for example, its 
ingredients can not only be ascertained, but they can be recom- 
bined and the substance reproduced. Chemical analysis may 

What is the distinction between vital and chemical actions? What does 
chemical analysis prove ? 



VITALITY AND CHEMISTRY. 195 

be proved by synthesis. Nothing of this kind happens in living 
structures. The food which nourishes the tissues is not com- 
bined with them, but transformed into them ; nor are the tissues 
decomposed Into their original elements, but transformed into 
excretions. Neither food, tissues, nor excretions can be repro- 
duced by chemical art when once used or produced in a living 

ganism. A multitude of errors in our standard works on 
chemistry and physiology will be corrected when this principle 
is universally understood and accepted. 

It is true that the difference between organic and inorganic 
matter may consist simply in molecular arrangement, so far as 
we can discover by our present methods of investigation. But 
the principle, force, or element of life is something very different. 
Spontaneous generation has not yet been proved, nor has any 
rational theory yet been offered to account for mind — thinking 
and feeling — resulting from any combination or molecular ar- 
rangement of inorganic matter. No living organism, and, in- 
deed, no organic matter, has yet been traced to anything but a 
prior living organism. All living structures are developed from 
cells, and are, perhaps, an aggregation of cells ; and all cells 
ped from an albuminous substance termed proto- 
plasm. But cells, protoplasm, and albumen are produced only 
by the vital processes. Nothing but a living organism can 
produce either. 

Chemistry claims to be constructive. This is true only in 
relation to dead matter. In relation to living matter it is 
purely destructive. The chemist can, indeed, make very good 
imitation- of protoplasm, cells, and various organic products. 
He can imitate them so closely that neither analysis nor the mi- 
scope can detect any difference between them and the pro- 
duet- of vitality. Yei they are as different as life and death. 
The viral protoplasm will produce cells, and these will form 
structures, and organs. But the chemical article will 
either. Jt will not grow nor reproduce itself. 

The fundamental characteristics of organic matter are, 

1. Nutrition. 

*J. Development, or Differentiation. 

In v chemistry constructive? What arc the fundsmeottl 

4 <;r::;j!]i<- matter ? 



196 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

3. Reproduction. 

Nothing having the least analogy to either occurs in the inor- 
ganic world. And although the starting-point of all the vital 
processes is in the primordial cell, we are not yet able to say 
what the principle of life is. We can, however, demonstrate 
the fact that it is neither chemical nor mechanical. 

THE CELL. 

As all parts of the body are originally derived from the cell, 
this must be regarded as the primordial structural element. 
The cell is therefore a living thing, and a physiological unit. But 
the cell does not mean the smallest particle of a living organism 
which can be recognized by the aid of the microscope, and 
which is termed granule, vesicle, or crystal. 




Fig. 183.— Structure op the Cell. 

In Fig. 183 are shown the structural arrangements of two 
cells, one round and the other oval in form, a a, border of 
the cell; b b. cell body; c c, nuclei, with nucleoli, d d. 

The ceU consists essentially of a soft mass, enclosing a pecu- 
liar structure. The soft substance is termed the cell-body, the 
central structure within it the nucleus, and the minute particle 
within the nucleus, the nucleolus. In addition to these parts 
of a cell, there is sometimes a hardened stratum surrounding 
the soft substance, termed the cell-membrane. The cell-mem- 
brane was formerly regarded as an essential part of the cell, 
but later observations show that it may be entirely absent 
without affecting appreciably the physiological properties of 
the cell. 

But, although these anatomical distinctions of the cell are 

From what are living organisms derived ? What are the essential parts of 
the cell? 



VITALITY AND CHEMISTRY. 197 

easily understood, its physiological properties introduce us into 
the world of mysteries. It possesses the power to change other 
matters into its own substance without being changed by them; 
and this is vital transformation as distinguished from chemical 
and mechanical actions. The cell absorbs, assimilates, and 
excretes — processes unknown to non-living matter; and in vir- 
tue of these processes, it develops, grows, multiplies, differenti- 
ates, resulting in the production of an organism of tissues and 
structures and organs, each performing a distinct function. 
Because of these physiological properties the cell has been 
termed an elementary organism. 

The ovum of the higher animals and doubtless the ova of 
all animals, from which all animals originate, as vegetables do 
from seeds, possess the intrinsic nature of the cell ; and there 
are microscopic animals whose whole organization consists only 
of a single cell, and whose "whole existence is included within 
the narrow circle of cell-activity. " 

^ In the process of development, cells as- 

f^yj sume very different shapes, the first divi- 

sions of which are the 'flattened and tall 
Q ll ^Sk^ new row cell, resulting from compression 
g V /ii>\ ^*^ an ^ flattening in opposite directions, as 

^/ seen in Fig. 184, which represents the dis- 

Fig. is i.— cells of iiu- koid cells of the human blood, a a a. At 
b is a half side view; cl represents a color- 4 
less corpuscle. 

The primordial cell-substance is commonly known by the 
term protoplasm ; but is termed by some authors, bioplasm, 
cystoplasm, and sarcode. "Protoplasm consists" (says Frey, 
in his "Histology and Histo-chemistry of Man," from which 
some of these illustrations are copied,) "of an extremely un 
stable albuminous compound, insoluble in water, but which be- 
comes gelatinous Tor in some instances shrinks) on imbibition 
of the latter: it coagulates further at a low temperature and 
at death, bo that only by the most careful manipulation can it 
be examineidl in a norma] condition under the microscope." 

In Pig. 185 Ls a representation of different kinds of cells witli 

How Lb vital transformation distinguished from chemical action? By what 
term • la tin primordial cell-eab tance known ? 



198 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



nuclei and protoplasm. From a to d are seen elements of the cell 
with a medium quantity of protoplasm, and at e with a large 
proportion ; f and g represent cells with a very 
small amount of protoplasm. A cell can never 
be produced from a nucleus which has lost its 
protoplasm. 

It is an interesting physiological fact, — and one 
that should guard us against taking poisons or 
foreign substances into the system, whether mix- 
ed with food or drink, or in any other manner, — 
that foreign matters may penetrate the cells from 
without, as shown in Fig. 186. 

In the cut a represents a lymph corpuscle with 
granules of carmine imbedded in it; b, another 
of the same, with included blood-cells and frag- 
ments of the latter; c, a heptic cell, containing 
fat globules and granules of biliary figments; d, a 
cell with fat globules and distinct membrane; 
another, with granules of melanin. 




Fig. 
Cells with 
Protoplasm. 



VITAL PHENOMENA OF CELLS. 



The vital processes of cell life are termed vegetative because 
they are common to plants and animals — to all living organisms. 
r They are absorption, transformation, excretion, growth, and pro- 
liferation. The living cells also possess the vital property of 




Fig. 186.— Cells with Foreign Matters. 

contractibility which, in the higher animal organism, is only 
manifested by the muscular tissue. The distinguishing pro- 



Do poisons penetrate the cells from without ? What are the vital phenom- 
ena of cells ? 



VITALITY AND CHEMISTRY. 



199 



perty of the animal kingdom is, therefore, the nervous tissue, 
whose functions are thinking and f<< ling. All other vital 
functions belong equally to the vegetable kingdom. 

The white corpuscles of the blood, the corpuscles of lymph, 
pus. mucus, and those of the secretions, seem to be living cells, 

and resemble, microscopically, those organisms (amoebe) wbieh 

are so simple and transparent as to be termed structureless. 
Nevertheless, these organisms have the power to move from 
place to place, to project organs or parts for special purposes, 
to take into their substance nutritive material, to assimilate 
food and thereby produce "formed-niaterial," and eject the 
debris or effete matters. Indeed they perform all the vital pro- 
with the exception of those which pertain to a nervous 
system. 

Fig. 187 represents a group of lymph-cells as affected by 
various states or degrees of contractility. They are taken from 




Fig. 187.— Contractile Cells. 



tli.' aqneonfl humor of an inflamed eye of a frog, and are hence 
more Irregular and jagged than In the normal condition. 

In Pig. l v ^ are shown tie' more symmetrical appearance ol 

the white corpuscles of the human blood when their vital pro 
perty of contractility Is exercised From l to 10 is represented 



: vital properties dtotfngnista the anim.il from the vegetable kingdom f 
How do the n iiit<- corpo mble amo b 



200 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

by a series of changes which have been observed within a 
period of forty minutes duration, ultimating in the formation 
of the stellate cell, b. 

The manner in which cells may be arranged so as to form 
tissues, structures, and finally organs, is illustrated in Fig. 189, 
which is a representation of the living connective tissue from 
the frog's leg. 

Tne power of cells, corpuscles, amoeboids, etc., to pervade the 




Fig. 188.— White Contractile Blood-Corpuscle?. 

tissues, structures, and organs of the body, is explained by 
their ability to adapt their shape to the channels they traverse. 
Says Frey, " This wandering of amoeboid cells through the 
interstices of living parts was discovered years ago by Reckling- 
hausen. The readiest mode of studying the phenomenon for 
ourselves is by taking a drop of some fluid containing cells 
from the body. In the tissues of the system the cells wander 
on with a continual change of shape through fine, narrow 
interstices (usually compressed somewhat into elongated 
figures), and traverse thus in a short space of time compara- 
tively large distances." 

Dr. Lionel S. Beale, in his work, "How to Work with the 
Microscope, '' says : ' ' Hitherto many of the movements occur- 
ring in living things have been referred to the property of con* 
tractility, and, strange to say, the very authorities who never 
lose an opportunity of condemning those who attribute any 
changes in things living to the influence of a peculiar force or 

How is the power of cells, etc., to pervade the structures explained ? How 
can the fact be ascertained ? 



VITALITY AND CHEMISTRY. 



201 



power— vitality— consider that movement* are sufficiently ex- 
plained and accounted for if they are attributed to this mysti- 
cal property of contractility. They do not attempt to define 
what they mean by the word, nor do they show in what tins 
supposed property resembles or differs from other properties of 
matter. They do not state whether it La peculiar to the living 
state or is manifested after life has ceased. 

'• Many facts have convinced me that there is an absolute 
difference between living and non-living matter, and I maintain 




Fig. 189.— Connective Tissue. 



that the assertion that the non-living passes by gradations into 
the living is not justified in the present state of scientific 
knowledge. 

"Some of the most remarkable phenomena which distinguish 
living from nonliving matter may now be observed under the 
microscope with the aid of the highest powers. There is no 
department of natural knowledge in which a greater advance is 
to be noticed than this, and the facts which have been recently 
1 enable US to draw a <harp and well-defined line 

proved that non-living matter | gradations into living? How 

can (he phenomena which distinguish them be beat observed f 



202 



POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 



between living things and the various forms of non-living mat- 
ter, be it of simple or complex composition. If as investigation 
still further advances, the facts already known are confirmed, 
and the conclusions arrived at from recent researches, sup- 
ported by new observations and experiments, the operation of 
some agency, force or power, in living matter, distinct from 
every kind of physical force operating in non-living matter 
must be admitted, and the views at this time most popular will 
have to be modified in most important particulars." 

It was very natural for physiologists, after exhausting all the 
resources furnished by the higher animals and larger plants in 




Fig. 190.— Shell of a Diatom. 

the pursuit of the knowledge of the origin or starting-point of 
life, to seek it in the lowest and minutest organisms with the 
aid of the microscope. But the problems of life seem to be as 
mysterious and complicated in the minute as in the massive 
organisms. The little diatom, millions of which can exist with- 
in the space of a cubic inch, possesses tissues, structures, and 
organs, if not as elaborate, as wonderful as those of the ele- 
phant ; and the yeast plant, which develops in decaying al- 
buminous substances by the process known as fermentation, 
has a structure as marvelous as the largest tree. 

The representation of the shell of a rare diatom (Fig. 190) 
shows a structure quite as admirable as does the skin or bark 
of any animal or plant. 

How is the yeast plant developed ? What is the nature of the yeast plant ? 
To what is the life-element invariably traced ? 



VITALITY AND CHEMISTRY. 203 

Within a few years chemists and physiologists have given 
much attention to the study of the nature of fermentation, 
w«o t $ eP o justly regarding the putrefaction 

(? / c » 9S/?^* qA of albuminous matters and the pro- 
fir ° o/5)0 " duction of the living organisms now 
© ^ known as tin 4 yeast plant, or fungus 
&*£*&*& ^ 1 ' ^ was ^ ormerl y regarded as an ani- 
\t^$*§& mM ma * 01 \^ anislll )< as affording import- 
>*§><» n ,^J $m ^~ anr data in relation to the origin 
tffa fr ^^^^^^222®- of life. But here, as everywhere, 
^W I Bfl tlie mode or manner in which the 
*™a^ non-living becomes living eludes all 
Fig. ioi.— The Yeast Plant in research ; and as is the case with 
various Stages. mold, mildew, and all other micro- 
scopic fungi, the life-element is invariably traced to some prior 
living thing. 

In Fig. 191 the yeast fungus is represented in various stages 
of development. 

DEATH. 

Although few persons die naturally, death is as natural as 
life. The primordial germ is a gelatinous fluid. In mature life 
the structures are more solidified. In old age the solids are so 
disproportioned to the fluids that the nutritive processes can 
no longer be carried on, and death ensues. All through ex- 
istence, from the inception of life to the latest breath, the pro- 

36 of solidification is unremitting. But it may be greatly 
hastened by improper ingesta and abnormal influences. Hard 
water, foreign substances of all kinds, and stimulants which 
waste the fluids, are predisposing causes of diseases, and causes 
of premature death. Diseases of all kinds, though necessary 
vital Btrugglea against morbific causes, occasion waste of vitality 
and abbreviate the period of life. • 

In a life, according to the laws of life, death is not preceded 
by Bicknesfl nor attended with pain. It is but a sleep that 
knOWfl no waking. 



Wh&t i- the rationale Of natural death I What circuiiiHtances hasten death? 
Is natural death painful f 



CHAPTER XVI. 

HYGIENE. 
CLEANLINESS. 

That u cleanliness, which, is next to godliness," implies obe- 
dience to every law of the vital organism. The common causes 
of disease are poisons introduced from without, through the 
stomach, lungs, or skin, and poisons ingeneration in conse- 
quence of retained effete matters. Cleanliness, therefore, de- 
mands as much attention to the ingesta as to the surface. 
Unless this be attended to, no amount of washing or bathing 
of the skin will prevent foul blood, morbid secretions, and gene- 
ral impurity. Many persons are fastidiously neat with regard 
to their hands, faces, dress, and the furniture of their apart- 
ments, yet strangely reckless of what they swallow, inhale, or 
absorb. Pure blood, without which no one can be clean within, 
whatever may be the external condition, cannot be maintained 
unless aU the excretory organs — the skin, lungs, liver, bowels, 
and kidneys — are kept free and unobstructed. And this cannot 
be done without the proper use of all hygienic agencies, and 
the misuse or abuse of nothing. 

In all places where offal or garbage is allowed to accumulate 
sickness prevails; and if the accumulation be great or pro- 
longed pestilences occur. There is little doubt that aU conta- 
gious diseases — small-pox, measles, whooping-cough, mumps, 
etc. — would soon disappear were all the people cleanly in their 
persons and surroundings. Stagnant water is known to be as 
prolific a source of disease as are atmospheric impurities. Sinks, 
cess-pools, drain-pipes, etc. , should never be allowed to become 
offensive to the senses; and all excrement should at once be 
removed from dwellings, or disinfected with earth or chemicals. 
The gases arising from rotting and decaying animal and vege- 

What are the common causes of impure blood ? What are the special 
causes of contagious diseases ? 



HYGIENE.— FOOD. ^05 

table matters are the causes of some of the most malignant 
fevers known. 

In country places all offal and garbage Bhould be promptly 
removed to the compost heap, which should be so distant from 
the dwelling as to be inoffensive; and in cities it should be 
burned by the cook, instead of being deposited in the ash-box 
to infect the atmosphere. Garbage thrown into the gutters and 
ash-boxes has much to do in rendering tenement-houses pesti- 
lential. 

FOOD. 

Without discussing the vegetarian theory, we may accept the 
conclusion of eminent naturalists that the organization of the 
human being indicates that his natural dietetic character is 
frugivorous; and as all intelligent physiologists agree that all 
nutrient material for man and animals is produced by the vege- 
table kingdom in the processes of development and growth, it 
ms to follow that vegetable productions, when perfect of 
their kind and properly prepared, constitute the best food for 
man. Plants feed on inorganic matters. They compound, or 
rather transform, them into certain proximate elements — fibrin, 
albumen, casein, gum, sugar, starch, lignin, etc. But these 
proximate 4 elements are not properly food. They are merely 
alimentary principles, not ailments. It is the organic arrange- 
ment i not chemical combination) of these proximate elements 
into a whole that constitutes tiue food — grains, fruits, and 

rnivorous plants v which have lately been discov- 
ered, and which entrap and destroy flies and other insects, are 
thought by some to prove that some plants, at least, can teed 
on organic as well as inorganic matter. But the seeming excep- 
tion may be delusive; for, as plants absorb gases from the at- 
mosphere through their leaves, and earthy matters in solution 
through their roots, it is quite probable that the insects which 
some plant.- seem to devour are reduced to their inorganic con- 
stituents before being < aU n. 

Hut it animal food, in part, is to be preferred or permitted, 
ir i- certain, if not Belf-evident, that the flesh of the herbivora is 



■ What are alimentary principles f What ar« all- 



206 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

the more wholesome kind ; and the experience of four thousand 
years has not taught civilized men any better rules for discrim- 
inating between the more and less wholesome kinds of animal 
food than are found in the Mosaic code. 

All writers on dietetics agree that simplicity in food, both in 
respect to the kinds taken at a meal and the mode of prepara- 
tion, is essential to good health; and for these reasons nearly 
all the recipes found in our fashionable cook-books can be 
regarded as little else than dietetic abominations. 

Highly-seasoned dishes are condemned by universal expe- 
rience. All condiments are foreign substances, and in no sense 
nutritious; hence, an infallible rule to regulate their employ- 
ment is, the less the better. Their excessive use is a common 
case of dyspepsia and its manifold complications. They are 
chiefly employed to improve the relish of food or provoke appe- 
tite, and by many physicians and physiologists are supposed to 
promote digestion. But nature teaches that the normal actions 
and secretions of the living structures are the only promoters 
of digestion, and that all proper food is not only palatable, but 
delicious, to the pure and unperverted instinct. Many persons, 
by disusing all condiments for a short time, have acquired such 
a keen appreciation of the gustatory properties of food as to 
relish all kinds much better without salt, vinegar, pepper, mus- 
tard, or spices, than with. Butter, cheese, sugar, starch, etc., 
can only be regarded as products of organic matter, or aliment- 
ary principles, and not in any sense aliments or foods proper. 
They are conducive to various diseases of indigestion, and their 
excessive use is doubtless one of the principal causes of that 
morbid condition of the system known as " biliousness," while 
they also predispose to scrofulous and erysipelatous affections. 

Probably the most pernicious custom in relation to the die- 
tetic habits of the more enlightened nations, consists in the use 
of fine or superfine flour, instead of meal, in the manufacture 
of bread-food. 

The bran of wheat and other grains contains nutritive elements 
which are essential to perfect nutrition, and which do not exist 
in the finer portions within ; hence, when more or less of the 



What are the Hygienic rules in relation to food ? What of high-seasoned 
dishes ? What of superfine flour ? 



HYGIENE.— FOOD. 207 

bran is separated the value of the grain as food is correspond- 
ingly deteriorated. Whenever bread made of bolted meal is a 
principal article of diet, constipation and its innumerable train 
of secondary ailments are the inevitable results. 

The rejection of the bran is a great loss in a commercial, as 
well as in a sanitary sense. As grains, like all other foods when 
not preserved by ice or the exclusion of atmospheric air, con- 
stantly deteriorate from the moment that the organic arrange- 
ment of their molecules is destroyed, the actual nutritive value 
of the tin est flour, as we find it in market, cannot be one-half 
that of freshly-ground and unbolted meal ; and when we find it 
in the shape of baker's bread, still further deteriorated by means 
of fermentation, and always mixed with salt, and often adul- 
terated with alum, ammonia, bar-soap, or other substances, 
its value as food is still further diminished. The loss to the 
civilized nations in this item, alone, amounts to hundreds of 
millions of dollars annually — more than enough to feed all the 
paupers on the earth. Bread made of unbolted meal and pure 
water ensures proper mastication, and thus preserves the teeth; 
and good teeth are essential to the integrity of the whole digest- 
ive apparatus. 

Bread. — Perfect bread may be made of wheat-meal, corn- 
meal, rye-meal, or oat-meal, or of admixtures of any of them 
in proportions to suit the taste or fancy, and pure water. If 
cold water is used, the dough should be thoroughly kneaded 
to incorporate as much atmospheric air as possible, in order to 
render the bread light and crisp; and the colder the water is 
the more tender the bread will be. If hot water is used less 
kneading is required, and the bread will be softer and more 
moi.-r. Excellent fruit-bread maybe made by mixing more or 
less of stoned raisins, stoned dates. English currants, or stewed 
figs, or all of them, with the dough. The dough should be 
rolled out on the bread-board of any thickness desired, covered 
with the fruit, turned over to enclose the fruit, rolled lightly 
into a loaf and baked in a hot oven. When a richer article 
U desired, coeoanut maybe grated over the fruit. All bread 

mad' of meal and water should be baked in a quick oven. If 



Wbj be freshly ground J How 

imc bread !><• made f 



208 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

covered with a cloth, when taken from the oven, and placed in 
a stone crock or other covered dish, the crust of the bread will 
absorb the moisture and become soft. Those who have good 
teeth, however, generally prefer the harder crust. 

Sweet potatoes, stewed pumpkin, apples, and peaches may- 
be used, if any prefer their flavor to that of the fruits above- 
mentioned. 

Mushes. — Wholesome mushes may be made of crushed wheat, 
oatmeal, hominy, corn grits, and corn-meal, or of the whole 
grains of wheat or rye. Mushes of all kinds should be stirred 
very little after the material sets, or stops sinking to the bot- 
tom. The water should boil when the meal is stirred in, and 
kept boiling till the meal ceases sinking; when the dish should 
be covered, and cooked slowly until done. When fruit is added 
it should be cooked in a separate dish, and mixed with the mush 
just before dishing. 

Pies. — Healthful and delicious pastry can be made of wheat- 
meal dough and any kind of good fruit, pumpkins, or squashes. 
To make the crust, roll out the dough very thin, sprinkle a little 
meal over the pie-plate, and cover with the fruit. An upper 
crust may be added or not, as preferred. To render the upper 
crust soft and tender, the pies should be covered with a clotl 
as soon as removed from the oven. Dates, figs, or raisins ma; 
be used to sweeten when the other fruits are too sour. 

Puddings. — Puddings are substantially- baked mushes. In 
making them such materials should be selected as will, when 
cooked, present a light, spongy mass. Good puddings may be 
made of corn-meal mush, rice, bread, crackers, Graham flour, 
mixed with any good fruit into a mush, and baking in a hot 
oven. 

Sauces. — Wholesome and .palatable sauces for puddings or 
mushes, may be made of dates, figs, raisins, grapes, apples, 
peaches, currants, etc., mixed to suit the taste, flavored, if 
desired, with grated cocoanut or lemon juice, or both, with the 
addition of sufficient Graham flour to give the proper consist- 
ency. Dates, with almost any good canned fruit, make an ex- 
cellent sauce, applicable to all kinds of puddings. 



How can wholesome mushes be made ? Pies, Puddings ? Sauces ? 



HYGIENE.— DRINK. 209 

Soups. — Good soups can be made of one or more vegetables, 
boiled very soft, and diffused through a large proportion of 
water. Potatoes, peas, and beans, are the favorite articles; 
carrots, parsnips, turnips, and cabbage, are more or less em 
ployed by those who have given special attention to hygienic 
cookery. Rice, spinach, or tomatoes, are sometimes added. 

Broths are merely thin soups; porridges are thin mushes, and 
gruels are thin porridges. The latter is usually made of corn- 
mcal, or wheat-meal, and its use is mostly limited to invalids 
affected with inflammatory and febrile diseases. 

Vegetables. — The only wholesome manner of cooking vege- 
tables of all kinds is by boiling, or baking, or steaming; and the 
secret of good cooking in boiling consists in using as little water 
as possible, putting the vegetables into the water when it is at 
the boiling point, and removing them as soon as done. In bak- 
ing, the vegetables should not be put into the oven until it is 
hot, and should be removed and served as soon as sufficiently 
cooked. 

Among those vegetables which are edible and wholesome at 
all stages of growth are peas, beans, corn (and, probably, all 
grains), beets, asparagus, spinach, and cucumbers. Of course 
it is wasteful, in a commercial sense, to use any vegetable or 
fruit until fully grown and matured; but unless rendered un- 
wholesome by improper admixtures or seasonings, the above 
articles are as innocuous as delicious to healthy digestive 
organs and normal appetences. 

Fruits. — No cooking or seasoning can improve the flavor or 
wholesomeness of the sweet and sub-acid fruits, when of good 
quality and thoroughly ripened. Green - and very acid fruits 
may be baked, steamed, or stewed, and seasoned to suit the 
taste with some sweet fruit — as dates, raisins, tigs, sweet apples, 
whortleberries, etc. Cranberries, currants, gooseberries, quinces, 
rhubarb, and the Grab-apple, comprise tin* list of fruits in our 
markets which require the admixture of sweeter fruits to season 
them with. 

DRINK, 

From the multitude of beverages in common use, most of 



Wbat i- tin- rale for making wholesome Boups? How Bhonld vegetables be 
Booked } I rail 



210 POPULAK PHYSIOLOGY. 

which are commended by physicians and physiologists, " the 
natural dietetic character of man," so far as drink is concerned, 
might seem to be a very complicated problem. But if we study 
the Book of Nature instead of the books of men, the subject 
becomes very simple. Nature has provided no drink for man, 
animals, or plants, except water, and the purer it is the bet- 
ter. The " virtue " of all other beverages depends on the water 
they contain, while the foreign ingredients, of whatever name 
or nature, constitute their vices. The uses of water in living 
organism, are to convey nutrient materials to, and waste matters 
from, all parts of the bodily structure, and to regulate tempera- 
ture. These purposes cannot be better subserved by any ad- 
mixtures of drugs or other impurities. All saline or earthy 
matters, and all foreign ingredients of every kind, render the 
water less solvent, and to that extent less capable of holding 
the nutrient or waste matters in solution and transporting them 
to or from the body. 

Most of the thirst which calls for so much water-drinking, and 
all of the thirst which demands artificial beverages, is abnormal, 
and is occasioned by improper aliments and seasonings. Those 
who use a pure dietary and little or no seasonings, require com- 
paratively very little water; while if their exercises are moder- 
ate and their other habits hygienic, they can do very well with- 
out drinking at all. 

The amount of money which is expended for intoxicating and 
other beverages by the civilized nations, is enormous. It is 
within the bounds of certainty to say that the people of the 
United States annually waste in this manner more than one 
thousand millions of dollars. But if the waste of vitality could 
be reckoned in dollars and cents, the amount of loss would be 
more than doubled. 

BATHITO. 

Baching the whole surface of the body occasionally with warm, 
tepid, or cool water, is very useful to most persons; but bath- 
ing, in a general sense, is to be regarded as a therapeutic or 
remedial rather than a hygienic process. If our habits were in 
all respects normal, the skin would perform its depurating func- 

What beverages has nature provided ? What are the usual causes of exces- 
sive thirst ? 



HYlilEXE.— VENTILATION. o 1 1 

fcion without bathing, as well as the mucous membrane within 
can do its duty without washing. Rut the improper ingesta, 
and the foreign substances constantly taken into the system 
through the media of the digestive organs, lungs, and skin, 
necessitate more or less bathing, to enable the system to rid 
itself of some of them through the cutaneous emuncrory. The 
rules for bathing, therefore, are as various as the habits of peo- 
ple are different. 

So far. however, as bathing may be useful, when not employed 
a- a remedial agent in the treatment of disease, it is very easily 
managed. A quart or two of water and two or three towels, are 
all the materials necessary, although bathing-tubs, ponds, o 
streams maybe convenient. It is a great mistake to suppose 
that there is any special virtue in salt water, mineral water, or 
medicated or impure waters of any kind, for either bathing or 
drinking purposes. Whenever surf-bathing or swimming is more 
useful than ablutions, it is because of the exercise which accom- 
panies it. And it is also a mistake to suppose that any amount 
of bathing at tic sea-side or springs, during a few days or few 
weeks, can SO purify and invigorate the skin as to keep it in a. 
healthy condition the remainder of the year. A tepid ablution 
in one's private room at home the year round, is better than 
any amount of bathing that can be enjoyed or endured during 
one month or six months of the year. 

Per- aid never bathe soon after eating, nor when the 

body is much fatigued; the room or place should be of an agree- 
able temperature, and the water should not be so cold as to 
occa.-ion permanent chilliness, nor should the bathing be so 
prolonged as to induce a sense of languor or weariness. 

VENTILATION. 

Pare air i> as essential to good health as are pure food and 
pure water. As atmospheric air is normally composed of nearly 
four parts of nitrogen to one of oxygen, with an admixture of 
three to -i\ parts in One thousand of carbonic acid gas, and a 
small proportion of watery vapor, all deviations from this 
standard, and all factitious particles, or organic germs. 



What i- ti, \vi,.j i olea t<> be observed v 



212 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

are sources of imperfect respiration, impure blood, and vital 
waste. 

There are many impurities which sometimes so accumulate 
in the atmosphere as to become causes of pestilence and death, 
but which no chemical or microscopical examinations can de- 
tect. The nature of the malaria whica occasions periodical 
fevers, the fomites which causes yellow fever, the miasms of 
the gutters and tenement-houses which cause typhoid fevers, 
and the emanations from offal and excreta which constitute the 
essential causes of croup, diphtheria, small-pox, measles, as 
well as the virus and venoms of animal origin, have thus far 
eluded all attempts at chemical and microscopical analysis. 
But for all practical purposes it is enough to know that strict 
cleanliness and ample ventilation are our only preventive re- 
sources. 

A constant ingoing stream of oxygen is required to combine 
with the dead particles of the worn-out tissues and facilitate 
their removal, while a constant out-going stream of carbonic 
acid gas is exhaled from the lungs. If, therefore, the room be 
not properly ventilated, the supply of oxygen is deficient, while 
the exhaled carbonic acid gas accumulates, rendering the air 
irrespirable, and, in extreme cases, inducing suffocation. The 
carbon that is expired into the atmosphere is absorbed, fed 
upon, by the vegetable kingdom, thus purifying the atmosphere 
of its presence. 

Says Professor Youmans (" New Chemistry ") : " The relations 
of the atmosphere to living beings, the stability of its composi- 
tion, and the wonderful forces that are displayed within it, have 
been but lately enfolded by science, and are full of surpassing 
interest. The vegetable world is derived from the air; it con- 
sists of condensed gases that have been reduced from the atmos- 
phere to the solid form by solar agency. On the other hand, 
animals, which derive all the materials of their structure from 
plants, destroy these substances, while living, by respiration, 
and when dead, by putrefaction, thus returning them again in 
the gaseous form to the air from whence they came. In respect 
to air, the offices of plants and animals antagonize. What the 

What are the atmospheric causes of impure blood ? What is the effect of 
leficient ventilation ? 



HYGIENE .- -VENTILATION. 013 

former derives from the air, the latter restores to it, thus main- 
taining its equilibrium and permanence." 
Notwithstanding the importance of our abundant supply of 

pure air is well understood by physiologists, very little atten- 
tion is paid to ventilation in places where large masses congre- 
gate. Very few halls, churches, school-houses, theatres, oceau 

steamers, and railroad cars, are properly ventilated; and the 
same may be said of most sleeping apartments. 

The poisonous atmosphere that nearly all of the children of 
the public - schools in our cities are compelled to breathe, is 
strikingly and startingly illustrated in a recent report on the 
health fulness of the school-houses in Philadelphia, which are 
certainly no worse than the average. The Philadelphia Ledger 
for June 24. 1 875, BS 

" At the meeting of the American Public Health Association 
in this city in November last, the subject of School Hygiene was 
discussed at length. Acting upon the suggestions then made 
by Dr. D. F. Lincoln, the Philadelphia Social Science Associa- 
tion prepared a series of questions on the health of our public 
schools, addressed to the teachers, and another to physicians, 
inviting their aid in investigating the subject. The Board of 
Education of this city adopted them as the basis of circulars 
addressed to Principals of Grammar Schools and Directors of 
our Public Schools, and the answers were received, and, with 
the aid of the Social Science Association, arranged and digested. 
The results were presented in tabulated form at the recent meet- 
ing of 1 1 1 » * American Social Science Association in Detroit, Michi- 
gan, and Dr. Lincoln made them the subject of an address, 
which was followed by an interesting discussion. These exam- 
inations of the condition of our public schools as to the health 
of the pupils are almost the first, certainly the first with any 
in. ever carried out in the Ignited States, and the printed 
broad sheet in which the answers are digested contains a great 
! of information concerning the sanitary condition of our 
public schools. There are nearly four hundred separate reports 
or answers, each making more or less full replies to the Beven- 

1 to teachers, and thirteen to the doc- 



Wiiv are tenement I tlal .- Why m b inju- 

rious to health V 



214 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

tors who assisted in the investigation. A careful revision of 
the summaries made by Dr. Lincoln gave, as he reported, the 
following results of the examination of our Philadelphia school- 
houses: That, with the exception of one new building, not a 
single school-house had effective ventilation, the only available 
method of getting fresh air in the rooms being by open doors 
and windows — practically often impossible by reason of bad 
weather, or the noise and dust of crowded city neighborhoods; 
and finally, that much of the complaints common to teachers 
and scholars was due to poor ventilation, improper selection of 
desks, crowding studies, and ill-arranged school sessions. An 
analysis of the condition of the* air in twenty of our Phila- 
delphia schools will be published in book form. This shows 
the extent to which the air is contaminated ; in its pure condi- 
tion, there are from three to four parts of carbonic acid to every 
10,000; in the school-rooms, it ranged from six to twenty-one, 
and averaged thirteen and a half. 

TEMPERATURE. 

Human health maybe enjoyed in all latitudes, from the equa- 
tor to the regions of perpetual snow. But it is only in the tem- 
perate zone that human beings attain their highest moral and 
intellectual development. In some places in inhabited parts of 
the torrid zone, the thermometer often rises to 130° Fahrenheit, 
while explorers in the Arctic regions sometimes live for months 
in a temperature ranging from 50° to 70° below zero. In New 
York the temperature has a range of about 100°, seldom rising 
above 100° Fahrenheit, or falling below 0. But the changes of 
temperature in this climate frequently amount to 40°, and some- 
times to 50°, within twenty-four hours. 

Sudden and extreme changes of weather are the exciting 
causes of many diseases; but they would be comparatively 
harmless did not the predisposition to disease exist as the con- 
sequence of our erroneous habits of living. " Catching cold," 
which is the starting-point of so many maladies, could never 
occasion more than a temporary inconvenience were not the 



; What is tlie relation of temperature to health ? What is the thermometrical 
range in New York ? 



HYGIENE— CLOTHING. 215 

system in some abnormal condition, and having some one or 
more of its depurating organs obstructed. 

Undoubtedly, however, a mild climate and uniform tempera- 
ture are more conducive to permanent health and longevity. 
But in this, as in all colder climates, artificial heat is a u neces- 
sary evil:" and the hygienic rule for warming all dwellings and 
apartments, is (after providing for ample ventilation) to keep 
the temperature as low as possible consistently with comfort. 
This will generally be a little below summer heat — from 60 ' to 
65 : some allowance, however, must be made for the tempera- 
ture one has previously been accustomed to, when changing 
from one locality to another, as a sudden rise or fall of the tem- 
perature 15 or 20 , would vary the point of comfort some 5° 
or 6 . 

CLOTHING. 

In a strictly hygienic sense, the only use of clothing is to pro- 
tect the body against atmospheric vicissitudes. For this pur- 
pose it should be as equally distributed over the body as possi- 
ble; nor should it be allowed to restrain in the least the motions 
of any muscles or organs of the body. The material may be 
properly regulated by the sense of comfort. The principal 
errors in the dress of men are misshapen boots and shoes, stiff 
"stove-pipe" hats, and heavy or tight cravats, or "chokers." 
With fashionable women the dress is, in a general sense, all 
wrong. It would be difficult to invent anything more destruc- 
tive to health, more ruinous to comfort, more inconsistent with 
true taste and utility, or more degrading in all its moral con- 
sequences. Tight shoes and high-heeled gaiters distort the 
feet and render easy and graceful locomotion impossible; tight- 
lacing diminishes respiration, prevents due aeration of the blood, 
and thus directly cuts off the sources of vital energy; while heavy 
skirts supported on the hips occasion congestion, and frequently 
inflammation, and sometimes ulceration, of the pelvic and ab- 
dominal viscera. 

Esthetic considerations do not belong to a work of this kind; 
but certainly all forms and articles of costume that violate every 

What Lb the hygi< oic rule fox clothing? What are the common abuses of 



216 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

law of life, cannot be consistent with any recognition of the 
beautiful, except that which is the outgrowth of a monstrous 
perversion of the sense of beauty. 

LIGHT. 

The scientific world now recognizes light to be a " mode of 
motion," and correlated with heat, electricity, magnetism, and 
attraction. The influence of sunlight is essential to the devel- 
opment and growth of all the higher organisms of plants and 
animals, and also of man; and, within certain limits, the more 
human beings are exposed to sunshine, the most perfect will be 
their health and the more firm and enduring their structures. 
All physiologists understand the importance of so constructing 
dwellings as to admit as much light as possible into all of the 
apartments, although the rule is often disregarded by archi- 
tects. Persons who live in underground rooms which are not 
well lighted, or in any apartments which are constantly shaded, 
become frail, scrofulous, and cachectic. 

Light, as well as air, is a powerful disinfectant, purifying the 
atmosphere of miasms which otherwise might be the cause of 
putrid fevers and contagious diseases. When the heat is ex- 
cessive, the head should be protected from the direct rays of 
the sun, and with this precaution one can hardly have too much 
of the vitalizing influence of the sun. Yails and waterfalls are 
extremely injurious to health; the former induce weakness of 
the eyes, and the latter occasion congestion of tjie brain. Light 
and air should at all times during the day be allowed to circu- 
late freely among the hairs of the head; hence, the ordinary 
method that ladies have of wearing the hair braided or twisted 
into an impervious mass on the top or back of the head, has a 
damaging effect on the brain, and through that organ on the 
whole system. Much of the headache so prevalent in fashion- 
able society is attributable to this cause. Whether the hair be 
long or short, there can be no " sound brain in a sound body," 
unless it is worn loose and flowing. 

SLEEP. 

The hygienic rule for sleep is determined by an astronomical 
With what is light correlated ? What is the relation of sunlight to. vitality ? 



HYGIENE— BEDS AND BEDDING. 217 

law — the revolution of the earth on its axis; hence the vexed 
question, "How much sleep do human beings require?'' is eas- 
ily answered all that can be had during the night. A person 
in health can never sleep too much; tor when the object of 
sleep is accomplished he will awaken. These who cannot sleep 
on retiring at the usual hour, or who dream during Bleep, or 
who awake before sleep has had its 4k sweet restoring" influence, 
are in some sense invalids; hence, all the rules for remedying 
sleeplessness should have reference to the causes of mental dis- 
turbance. The folio whig remarks copied from the "Hygienic 
Hand-Book," are in point: 

11 Invalids, generally, do not sleep enough. The importance 
of sound, quiet, and sufficient sleep cannot be too highly esti- 
mated, as may be inferred from the physiological fact that it is 
during sleep that the structures are repaired. The materials 
of nutrition are digested and elaborated during the day, but 
assimilation — the formation of tissue — only takes place during 
sleep, when the external senses are in repose. Literary persons 
require more sleep, other circumstances being equal, than those 
who pursue manual-labor occupations. If the brain is not duly 
replenished, early decay, dementation, or insanity will result. 
The rule for invalids is, to retire early, and remain as long in 
bed as they can sleep quietly. If their dietetic and other habits 
are correct, this plan will soon determine the amount of sleep 
which they require. Gross, indigestible, and stimulating food, 
heavy or late supper?, etc., necessitate a longer time in bed, for 
the reason that the sleep is less sound. And for the same reason, 
nervine and stimulating beverages, as tea and coffee, prevent 
sound, refreshing sleep, and thus wear out the brain and nervous 

stem prematurely. Those who are inclined to be rest I < 
vapory, or dreamy, during the night, should not take supper." 

It is becaase assimilation is mainly effected during sleep, 
that infants, whose principal business is to grow, require so 
much more sleep than adults. 

BEDS AND BBDDHTGk. 

Bed-clothing should be as light as possible consistently with 
What Is the hygienic role for sleep f What la the physiological necessity 



218 POPULAK PHYSIOLOGY. 

comfort, and mattresses as hard and level as they can be made 
with hair or sponge; corn-husks, straw, and various palms and 
grasses, make wholesome and comfortable beds. Feather-beds 
are being generally discarded as physiological knowledge in- 
creases; but in most hotels and boarding-houses, feather-pil- 
lows are still retained. They are certainly very pernicious. It 
is common in our first-class hotels — and the same is true of 
many private houses— to find a good, wholesome hair mattress, 
and all other parts of the bed and bedding unobjectionable, with 
the exception of the pillows. These are made so thick with feath- 
ers that it is impossible to rest the head on one of them with- 
out crooking the neck injuriously; and to make a bad matter 
worse, a thick feather bolster is placed under the pillows. One 
pillow of moderate size, without any bolster, is enough for health 
and comfort. For young children, and infants especially, the 
pillow should be very small and thin. 

J5XERCISE# 

Health and vigor cannot be maintained without a due amount 
of exercise ; and the hygienic rule consists in exercising all parts 
of the muscular system as equally as possible. It is possible, 
by means of special exercises, to develop some sets of muscles 
and some organs of the body to the detriment of others. Gym- 
nastic exercises, so well adapted to sedentary persons, unless 
properly varied, are liable to invigorate some parts of the body 
at the expense of other parts. Says the " Hydropathic Ency- 
clopaedia " : "People of all trades and occupations find those 
parts of the muscular system which are habitually the most 
exercised to be the most powerful. Thus farmers have the 
whole muscular system nearly equally developed; blacksmiths, 
carpenters, sailors, etc., have strong arms and chests ; travelers, 
dancers, etc., are disproportionately developed in the lower 
extremities; shoemakers, tailors, etc., have a tolerable develop- 
ment of the arms and chest, but suffer in the lower extremities 
and abdomen; merchants, clerks, and others who pursue an 
easy, in-door occupation, have slender muscles generally; and 

What is the relation of exercise to health ? What is the hygienic rule for 
exercise ? 



HYGIENE— EXERCISE. 219 

professional men, whose exercise is more intellectual than 
bodily, exhibit large brains with slender muscles." 

It happens, fortunately, that those vocations which are the 
most necessary for human existence, are most conducive to 
health and longevity; hence agricultural pursuits outrank all 
others in this respect. It is true that farmers and housewives 
do not, generally, in this country, by their health conditions, 
advertise their occupation favorably: but it is because many of 
them work intemperately, and nearly all of them are exceed- 
ingly unhygienic in their dietetic and other habits— more so, 
probably, than any other class of society. They have the means 
for the best health, but are the worst abusers of the means. 

All exercise — labor or play — which occasions a degree of 
fatigue that is not readily recovered from on resting, is inju- 
rious, and all within that limit is useful. Violent exercise 
should never be taken immediately before nor after meals; nor 
should lunches or other u refreshment v ever be taken between 
meals, in view of performing some extraordinary feat or unusual 
labor. Severe diseases and sudden deaths have been the result 
of this error. 

A- substitutes for manual labor, walking, riding, rowing, 
quoits, croquet, ball, etc., are among the best out-door exer- 
< dses; while dumb-bells, clubs, wands, the light gymnastics, 
calisthenics, lifting- machines, etc., with parlor-skating and 
dancing, afford an ample variety of in-door exercises from which 
to choose. 

The hygienic rule applicable to all persons and to all kinds of 
exercises is to commence very moderately, and gradually increase 
them in length and vigor as the muscles which are specially 
called into action become accustomed to the motions. They 
should never be performed with sufficient violence to occasion 
distressing panting, or a painful throbbing or palpitation of the 
heart. To guard against these excesses, it is well to keep the 
mouth firmly closed while exercising, and discontinue or moder- 
ate the exercises whenever it becomes necessary to open the 
month* 

With regard to the exercises of children, the following para- 

conditions prohibil violenl exercises? What special rule should be 



220 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

graph, copied from the " Hydropathic Encyclopaedia," seems to 
cover the whole ground: u Our social organization is very de- 
fective in its provisions for the appropriate exercises of infants 
and young children. The cradle is a most unphysiological 
method of exercising a child to sleep; its primary object was to 
save the nurse trouble, but a child accustomed to be rocked to 
sleep will give the nurse more trouble in the end, than one 
accustomed to sleep without such assistance. The motion of 
the cradle, too, is injurious to the brain and nervous system. 
The modern ' baby-jumper ' is a better contrivance, but even 
this can be advantageously superseded by giving the child ' the 
largest liberty ' to exercise in its own way. Plenty of room, a 
smooth floor, and a plentiful supply of ' playthings ' which are 
not dangerous — india-rubber balls, baskets, brooms, rattle- 
boxes, etc. — afford the opportunities which a child will always 
improve to the best possible advantage. Unfortunately, among 
the poorer classes of our cities, young children are kept in stupid 
inactivity simply because they have no room in which to stir; 
and this confinement renders them sickly, puny, peevish, and 
indolent." 

REST. 

Rest is as important a law of life as exercise. The divisions 
of time into day and night, constitute the basis of the physio- 
logical law for exercise and rest in all the habitable parts of the 
earth, so far as the mental organs are concerned ; and the more 
nearly we conform our habits and occupations to this order of 
nature, the more prolonged will be our terrestrial sojourn^ Rest 
during the day should have reference to our habits and occu- 
pations. Persons who are in perfect health are a law unto 
themselves in this respect. Their sensations will guide them 
correctly when and how to exercise. No healthy person can be 
indolent or lazy. Laziness implies disease, or some abnormal 
condition; for all normal exercises are pleasurable when the 
conditions are normal. 

But, unfortunately, there are few perfectly healthy persons; 
hence erring reason must do the best it can for what unerring 

What relation has day and night to rest ? Who are a law unto themselves ? 
What does laziness indicate ? 



HYGIENE— PASSIONAL INFLUENCES. 221 

instinct would have done in an unperverted condition of the 
vital organism. 

The vital functions of circulation, respiration, absorption, 
secretion, and excretion, seem to be restless and unremitting 
from the inception of life in the blending of the germ and 
sperm -cells, to death; but a closer examination shows that 
vital, as well as mental organs, have their periods of action and 
repose. The heart rests between each contraction, the lungs 
rest after each inspiration and expiration, and each organic cell 
rests between each act of assimilation, formation, or disinte- 
gration. The function of digestion rests several hours during 
each day of twenty -four hours, and those functions which 
pertain to reproduction have periods of rest extending through 
weeks and months. 

PASSIONAL INFLUENCES. 

Mental hygiene, which means the due exercise and rest of the 
mental powers, is not less important to health than is bodily or 
vital hygiene. Probably as many diseases are incurred, and as 
many lives ended prematurely, because of a misuse or abuse of 
the mental propensities, as by any other cause that can be 
named. The hygienic rule for the exercise of the passions is a 
very plain one, and consists simply in subordinating them all 
to use; they are to be employed or indulged only in relation to 
the legitimate purposes of life. In all ages philosophers and 
poets have understood and taught the important lesson that 
our passions, though admirable servants, are terrible masters. 
Audit is an equally important and eminently practical truth, 
that the exercise of all the nobler emotions, the moral senti- 
ments, and the intellectual faculties, are conducive to health, 
while the " baser passions " (the abnormal exercise of the pro- 
pensities j are powerfully destructive to the vital energies. To 
understand the principle indicated, we have only to contrast 
the manner in which hope and fear, love and hatred, benevo- 
lence and anger, mirthfulness and grief, gratitude and envy, 
conscientiou-i]' — and remorse, energize or depress the whole 
being. 

What is understood i>\ mental hygiene! What is the hygienic rule for cxer- 



222 POPULAR PHYSIOLOGY. 

The ancient stoics, to obviate the evils resulting from pas- 
sional abuses, sought to subdue the passions, and attain to a 
purely intellectual existence. But this was to ignore one-half 
of their nature, all of which was "very good " when properly 
used. The passions should be governed, not suppressed, di- 
rected, not annihilated. Virtue does not consist in the absence 
of passion, but in fts regulation. In the highest and best de- 
velopment of a human being, all of the mental powers, as well 
as the vital functions, are harmonized, constituting " a sound 
mind in a sound body;" the domestic and social affections are 
governed by the moral sentiments, and these directed to their 
appropriate objects by the intellectual faculties. This is what 
should be understood by self-control. 

OCCUPATION. 

" Something to do " is as essential to health as are victuals 
and drink; and that something means some useful vocation; 
and as those pursuits in ]ife which are most conducive to the 
general welfare, call into constant exercise the moral and intel- 
lectual powers, they cannot be otherwise than most conducive 
to health and longevity. It is true, that one-half the human race 
is overworked, and the other half do too little ; but this is the 
fault of false or imperfect social arrangements and political in- 
stitutions ; and it is difficult to say who suffers the more, the 
drudges or the idlers. But a very great evil is the nature and 
kind of occupations, many of which are demoralizing and de- 
structive. It were easy to show that more than one-half of all 
the labor of the toiling millions is worse than wasted. For ex- 
amples, the liquor and tobacco traffics involve a financial loss 
to the people of the United States of not less than one thousand 
millions of dollars annually, to say nothing of the still worse 
consequences — the vices, crimes, pauperism, physical degene- 
racy, and mental disorder, that are ever their invariable accom- 
paniments. Then, again, another sum, almost as large, is earned 
and expended for useless and enervating luxuries and mere- 
tricious adornments. Tea, coffee, sugar, candies, and confec- 
tions, cost us a hundred millions of dollars annually; quack 

What occupations are conducive to health ? What vocations are ruinous to 
health and society ? 



H-YGIENE— OCCUPATION. 223 

medicines another hundred millions, and the ever-changing 
fashions of woman's dress, two or three hundred millions more. 
Were people to eat, drink, and dress for use and not for fashion, 
all the toil of accumulating these millions would be saved, and 
all would have ample time and means for moral and intellect- 
ual culture, and want and misery would hardly be known on 
the earth. 

How could want and misery be best prevented ? 



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